in ■ • m i 

™:\;tis and. does 




Class Z^i^-a. 

Book C 



Gopyiight N? . 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



SCHOOL • HOME ■ COMMUNITY SERIES 



FIH FOOD KIFI 



WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



EI 



BY 



EDITH GREER 




GINN AND COMPANY 

BOSTON ■ NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 



COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY EDITH GREER 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



515. 



TX3S3 




JAN 29 1915 



QEfte gtftenaum jgregg 

GINN AND COMPANY- PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



^04 
CI.A391509 



PREFACE 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES PURPOSE OF BOOK 

Production of food and food-preparation are among the oldest 
occupations of human life. They are still most essential to human 
well-being. Cultivation and cooking of food have come down the 
ages into complex activities highly specialized and associated with 
concentrated commercial interests. Together these are coming under 
the direction of science and the regulation of the community. 

Occupation with the needs created by living, is a common human 
pursuit, practiced with or without purpose or plan. Any continua- 
tion of life necessitates work. Advancing life requires intelligent 
work that includes the study of how to live constructively. That 
this may be, the study of food in school is now generally advised 
by all prepared to see its bearing upon both wholesome life and 
efficient work, and also how the understanding cooperation of 
humanity is needed in supplying and selecting what is of use for 
growth and health. 

Civilization, in whatever stage it is at the time, is the environ- 
ment into which each generation comes. But what the environment 
becomes in its supplies and practices is determined by humanity 
as it lives. Experience served as a guide to action until Science 
was born. Together Experience and Science inform humanity 
and can be forming to its environment, upon which its physical 
nurture depends. 

The learner responds to the active aspects of learning with under- 
standing. Personal experience in activity carries one not only into 
seeing facts but also into knowing their meaning. Cookery in its 
actual practice in choosing, combining, preparing food makes food- 
knowledge center in nourishment, in which its real significance lies. 

But where cookery has not become a school course, while that 
subject is being ushered in — speed the day — or is being pursued 

Hi 



only in its mechanical aspects, a study of food — diet — nutrition 
is needed. Such a school need for girls and also boys is met in 
this presentation of Food — What it is and does. 

No community is longer wholly indifferent to youth's entering 
upon its mature functions and responsibilities, devoid of knowl- 
edge of what sustains and makes possible intelligent maintenance 
of abiding health and enduring energy. Even habits that secure 
healthful functioning of the body need the supplement of an in- 
telligent, interested attitude toward information that has forming 

power for race-growth. 

EDITH GREER 

New York 




IV 



CONTENTS IN GENERAL 



RTPI 



Plant Life and Plant Foods .... pp. 1-79 

For Specific Subjects see p. vii 

Animal Life and Animal Foods ... 81-126 

For Specific Subjects see p. 81 

Living — Industry — Commerce . . 127-158 

For Specific Subjects see p. 130 

Food-Science — Human Nutrition . . 1 59-2 1 3 

For Specific Subjects see p. t6o 

Hygiene — Health — Sanitation . . 214-224 

For Index see p. 225 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Food Maps and Statistics 
Food Charts and Tables 
Diagrams and Interpretations 

Meat Cuts and Carving 
Table- Laying and Equipment 

New England Hearth 
Norwegian Bread-making 
Italian Kitchen and Well-head 

Index records Specific Cuts 
under Illustrations 




It* 




Cocoa 



Date 



Papaiv 



Banana 



Plant life and Plant foods; Animal life and Animal foods; Food-Science 
Living — Industry — Commerce ; Home and Community Occupations 



Certain needs are common to all physical life. It always 

requires air, water, and food of some kind. In general, 

however, the specific foods desirable for different persons 

are as different as are the persons and their lives 



rj=\ Light on Life lightens labor in living 
a~| through Strength, Progress, Growth 



VI 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



Markets — Human Foods — Human Nutrition 1-2 
Vegetables — Starchy — Leguminous — Green 3-5 
Comparison of Vegetables — Combination 6-7 
Parts of Vegetables — Maturity — Preservation 8-1 1 
Cooking — Caring for — Selecting of Vegetables 1 2-4 
Plant- Production — Plant Foods — Grains 1 5-7 
Cereal Maps and Data on Production 18-9 
Cereals — Composition, Preparation — Grain Foods 20-3 
Wheat — Milling — Flours — Breads — Bread- 
Making 24-8 
Rising Agents — Yeast- Activity — Fermentation — 

Leavens 2 9~3 1 
Baking-Powder — Residues — Home-made Leavens 32-4 
Flours — Home-used — Flour-Mixtures — Bread- 
Substitutes 35-7 
Fruits — Cultivation — Preservation — Preparation — 

Use in Diet 38-45 

Nuts — Production — Use as Food — Data and Maps 46-9 

Oils — Acids — Spices — Flavorings — Condiments 50-5 
Beverages — Tea — Coffee — Cocoa — Chocolate — 

Sugar 56-64 
Vegetation — Value — Life-Needs — Plant-Construc- 
tion and Activity 65-8 
Bacterial Life — Dangers — Significance — Develop- 
ment 69-70 

CYCLE OF NATURE 

Living Organisms — Products of Living — Life 

Functions 7 r ~3 

Food Cycle — Vegetable Cells — Starch Grains 74-6 

Some World Crops in 19 12-19 13 77 

Crop-Distribution — Maps and Diagrams 78-9 

vii 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 

MARKETS iftll HUMAN FOODS 

Food Markets of the world show the foods of all climates, 
seasons, lands. Grain foods, vegetables, fruits, meats, dairy 
products are all seen and are all different. Yet they all con- 
tain most of the food substances needed to nourish human- 
kind, but in such different proportions and combinations as to 
make great variety in Human Foods. 

City markets everywhere are much alike in what they have, 
and they have most foods known to humanity. In town, 
village, hamlet is found only what is produced in the locality. 
It is these rather than the cosmopolitan markets that show 
the characteristic foods of the land. It is upon such foods 
that the majority of the inhabitants depend for nourishment, 
that is, must live, grow, and do their work. 

Rural life may limit further what comes from elsewhere, but 
it usually can be made rarely rich in what may be freshly raised 
at hand. With its abundance of fresh air and often fresh spring 
water the country provides for health-giving physical living 
that cannot be so fully insured under any other conditions. 

Human foods support the life of humankind. They differ 
from the foods needed by both animals and plants but include 
both plants and animals themselves. Whatever humanity can 
digest, that is, can make over into body-tissue Or otherwise 
use to aid in its living and working, is a human food. But 
all human foods are not equally desirable. Only those foods 
are valuable which do for the body what food needs to do to 
give the body health, energy, strength, endurance, and which 
do not do anything less helpful. Which foods these are varies 
somewhat with life-conditions. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 1 



VEGETABLE FOOD 



HUMAN NUTRITION 



Of what plants and animals make human foods and how 
they do this is considered later. The result of their food- 
manufacture is that human food is both vegetable and animal. 
Both serve in some respects # the same purpose in the body, 
while in others their use is different. Either vegetable or 
animal food would sustain life, but both together do so much 
better than either could. Vegetable food would do better 
alone than animal. Not a few persons do live upon it entirely. 
There are, however, reasons that make food-scientists doubt 
the advisability of an exclusively vegetable diet. But Science 
now advises that somewhat more than one half (at least .56) 
of the food of humankind be vegetable. 

Plant food supplies most of the energy and endurance of 
the body in starch, sugar, and vegetable-oil foods ; also much of 
the body-heat, the food-bulk required for digestive activity, the 
salts needed for body-regulation, and the water used in living 
processes and food-utilization. Some vegetable food can also 
build up body-tissue as it needs repair or material for growth. 

Vegetables, fruits, and seeds are of plant production. What 
these are like and where they come from, how they come, are 
prepared and used, are the food-facts that show what the food- 
supply brings to humankind as its vegetable food. 

Looking back of the food as served is seen the life of the 
plant itself, also the work of those that bring it to humankind as 
a human food that will nourish when eaten. Seeking such facts 
and seeing them as factors controlling the sustenance of human- 
ity is the purpose of studying Food — What it is and does. 

What vegetable food is used in human living is learned 
from markets that show what foods are available and from 
science that finds what foods can be produced and supplied, 
also what kinds of food are needed. 

2 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMPOSITION 



(STARCHY) VEGETABLES 



Plant food known generally as vegetables, fruits, grains, nuts, 
consists of various parts of the plant. The root, stem, stalk, 
leaves, flower, fruit, seeds all serve as human foods, but not all 
these parts of the same plant. Each vegetable food is the edi- 
ble part of the plant from which it comes. Beets are roots ; cel- 
ery is stem ; cabbage, leaves ; cauliflower, flowers ; tomato, fruit ; 
cocoa, seed. Different parts of some plants are edible at dif- 
ferent seasons, as bean pods when young and beans when older. 

Vegetables containing much starch are not edible raw, be- 
cause starch cannot be digested uncooked ; such are pota- 
toes. Vegetables containing a large percentage of starch are 
called starchy vegetables (see pp. 6, 9) to indicate this fact and 
designate in general what their use will be as a human food, 
for it is only their use in the body which makes them of im- 
portance as foods. Starchy vegetables keep well. They are 
therefore suitable for out-of-season use. 

Starch develops in plants as they mature, as fat does in 
animals as they grow old. Starch eaten in excess of the daily 
need stores fat in the body as body-fat. Cooked starchy foods 
supply the body with energy that endures and body-heat. 

Other constituents beside starch are present, too, in so-called 
starchy foods. These are water, mineral matter, often some 
sugar, fat in the form of oil, and a very complex substance 
called protein that always contains some nitrogen compounds. 
Protein is present in all living matter. 

This constituent (protein) enables food to build up body- 
tissue as growth requires and living necessitates. Mineral 
matter serves in body-building too (the skeleton is largely 
mineral matter) and also aids digestion in various ways. 
Water does the latter too. Sugar and fat furnish heat-energy 
that is used more quickly than that supplied by starch. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 3 



VEGETABLES (LEGUMES) 



CONSTITUENTS 



One group of the starchy vegetables contains more protein 
than others. These are known as legumes. They are peas, 
beans, lentils. They have a power all vegetables do not share. 
Other plants take the nitrogen compounds they make into pro- 
tein from the soil. Legumes have on their roots small tuber- 
cles or nodules in which there are bacteria that enable them 
to take free nitrogen directly from the atmosphere and store 
it in such plants for food use. Peanuts are also leguminous. 
Clover though not a human food is a leguminous plant, there- 
fore has this power. By 
taking the free nitrogen 
of the air thus and making 
it into plant protein such 
plants can return the ni- 
trogen in themselves to the 
soil for the plants that can- 
not take it from the air. 
This has been one method 
of enriching the soil. 
There is in many vegetables much woody fiber forming cov- 
erings and inner structure of the plant. This fiber is called 
cellulose. Cellulose, starch, sugar are all together termed 
carbohydrates in Food Science, because the elements of which 
they are composed are alike. These differ in their quanti- 
ties and arrangement, and thus make the different carbohy- 
drates — starch, sugar, cellulose. In general, carbohydrates 
supply heat-energy. Sugar is the carbohydrate most readily 
assimilated by the human system. Starch needs preparation 
before it can be utilized. Cellulose is only slightly digested, 
if at all, and then only from very young plants. There is little 
actual cellulose in human foods as eaten. 




FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



CONSTITUTION 



(GREEN) VEGETABLES 



" Green vegetables " is a term used to signify plant foods 
eaten fresh, usually raw and generally young. Industry is now 
canning these extensively. Transportation is carrying them 
from all climates to all cities. Both these practices result in some 
storing of such foods. The renewal of common interest in 
food-production is resulting in more distributed food-growth, 
hence less preservation of food and a fresher food-supply. 
This is most desirable for all food, but especially important 
for foods that have as one of their functions (that is, what 
they do) bringing refreshment through their own freshness. 

Greenness suggests the freshness of newness. Green vege- 
tation does this for life at large. Spring renews evidences of 
life. Summer verdure refreshes life. New plant foods renew 
diet. Green vegetable foods keep a diet fresh. 

Though all such foods are not used uncooked, many usually 
are ; as lettuce, celery, radishes. They are most propitiously 
so used. Some are served simply as relishes, but it is as salads 
that their use is to be developed. Italy, the land of wealth in 
plant production, gives salads as a form of food-preparation 
of fresh green plants with olive oil. This is becoming the 
general food practice here and elsewhere. Encourage it. 

These so-called green vegetables (see pp. 6, 8) contain much 
water, some cellulose, a relatively large percentage of mineral 
matter, and usually a distinctive flavor. Their value in human 
nutrition is their aid to the general maintenance of body- 
processes. They bring freshness, salts needed, and water. 
Cellulose (woody fiber) that is present in them can so stimu- 
late the alimentary tract as to enable it to free itself of waste 
products ; though were cellulose itself retained in the body 
in excess it would endanger intestinal fermentations that pre- 
vent proper digestion of any food and so undermine health. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 5 



COMPARISON OF VEGETABLES 



SUPPLEMENTING 



There is no distinct separation between the different groups 
of vegetables called starchy and green. One group passes 
gradually into the other, sometimes a plant is used while young 
as green and as starchy when old, as beans. It is only the 
extremes of both that show marked differences, as do pota- 
toes and tomatoes. The difference is, however, sufficient in 
their use in the body to make it advisable, when two vegetables 
are eaten together, to use one starchy and one green rather 
than two of either. See the table below. 

Composition of SOxME Common Vegetables 



Water 


Starchy 
Vegetables 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Protein 


Ash (indicates Mineral Matter) 


% 
75- 
70.3 
73- 
80.3 

79-9 

8 7 .2 

87.6 
88.6 
88.5 
93-4 


Potatoes 
White 
Sweet 

Corn 

Parsnips 

Peas 

Beans 

Onions 

Carrots 

Beets 

Pumpkins 


% 
20.6 
27.4 

19-5 
16.1 

i3-3 
7-5 
9-5 
7.6 

7-9 
3-9 


% 
2. 
1.8 

5- 
1.4 

3-9 
2.2 
1.4 
1.1 

i-5 

2.4 


% 
I. 
I.I 

•7 

1 + 
.8- 
•7 + 
.6- 

1. 

1. 

1.1 + 










+ means slightly more than 
— means slightly less than 










Green 
Vegetables 


Water 

% 








3-9 

3-5 
3-9 
3-2 

2.2 

i.'i 


2.4 

i-3 
1.4 

.8 

•9 
2.1 


1.4 

.6 

1.6 

•4 + 

•5 
2.1 


Cabbage 

Celery 

Lettuce 

Cucumbers 

Tomatoes 


90.5 
94-5 
93-6 
95-i 
94-3 




Hundredths over 5 

have been called a 

tenth ; under, were 

dropped 












Spinach 


92.3 





(Examine for general information only) 



Adapted mainly from Olsen's " Pure Foods ' 



Add the solids of each together. Then write the vegetables 
in the order of the amount of water that these solids show each 
must have. Consider ash mineral salts. Compare the quantity 
of it in each with the amount of the other solids in the food. 
In what order should the vegetables be arranged to show this ? 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



DISTINGUISHING 



DIFFERENCES IN VEGETABLES 



Experience in eating teaches much about differences in 
vegetables that is not so practically learned otherwise. But 
science alone can explain what is experienced and give in- 
formation that living could not disclose without such study. 
Examination of the chemical composition of foods shows that 
some are much alike which may seem different, also the reverse. 

Though refuse is purchased it is not usually in foods as 
eaten. The water in the edible portion of food is consumed. 
Though it does not nourish, it serves in body-regulation. 

Which vegetables should be used together to supplement 
one another ? Which should not be because they would 
duplicate one another ? Which of those that have much 
starch seem more nearly like " green " vegetables ? Are they 
in composition ? Parsnips and carrots are usually considered 
similar. See their composition. Note the similarity of the 
composition of pumpkins and cabbage. 

For Complete Table of Food Composition, see Index. 

Starchy, leguminous, and green vegetables have not only 
general differences but many specific variations within these 
groups. These alter the value of foods and their combina- 
tion. Some foods nourish. Some make a diet palatable. 
Others by adding bulk promote peristalsis. Still others serve 
in regulation of body-fluids. 

How foods are raised affects the dangers they may dis- 
tribute. Celery, radishes, and such other ground- vegetables 
bring soil-dangers. All vegetables eaten raw, without skins 
to remove, as lettuce and salads, generally carry the dan- 
gers of soil fertilization, dust, and general handling. Their 
freshness need not be impaired to insure safety ; if washed in 
boiling water and plunged into cold, crispness is revived and 
the food safer. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 7 



PARTS OF VEGETABLES ^m AVAILABILITY 

The waste in food is not always evident even when real. 

Refuse in vegetables 

None — spinach, tomatoes skinned, peas and beans dried. 
7_i 5% — beans (7%) ; onions ( 1 0%) ; cabbage, cucumbers, lettuce ( 1 5%). 
20-30% — potatoes (also sweet), parsnips, beets, carrots, celery (20%); 

turnips (30%). 
45-60% — green peas (45%); squash (50%); sweet corn (60%). 

When it is remembered that water as well as refuse enters 
largely into the composition of vegetables as procured, it is 
realized that bulk is a significant characteristic of vegetable 
food. 

Where the nutritive substances are in foods and how they 
are physically arranged affect their availability. Potatoes 
have an outer and inner skin. Both are richer in protein and 
salts than the flesh of the potato. Potatoes when peeled raw 
not only remove more nutrients than when peeled cooked, 
but in cooking permit the nutrients to be also dissolved out, 
as potato protein is in soluble form. Potato cooking-water, if 
the process is begun with cold water, contains -| of the pro- 
tein. But if plunged in boiling water, even peeled potatoes 
lose less than T ^ ; unpeeled, only j^. 

Slight nutriment (promote digestion) Palatability 

Eggplant — T 9 7 water ; solids mainly starch. (Breading increases value.) 

Cabbage — T 9 ^ water. Eaten raw retains nutrients. Cooked loses half. 

Cucumbers — over T 9 ¥ water. Used only for palatability. No food-value. 

Tomatoes — over T 9 ¥ water ; sugar over \ solids (sugar and protein solu- 
ble. Use juice therefore) ; some malic acid. Remove tomatoes from 
tin whenever not sealed air-tight. 

Lettuce — over T 9 ¥ water. Valued for chlorophyll (green coloring matter). 
Contains iron. 

Onions — valued for oils giving flavor. Stimulating to digestion. 

Melons — solids J^-, mainly sugar, that with oils and acids gives the flavor. 

8 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



USABLENESS 



■m 



CONSTITUENTS IN VEGETABLES 



Protein and simpler compounds (of dietetic value) Tissue-Formation 

Celery — T 9 g- + water. Valued for nitrogen compounds significant in diet. 

Asparagus — over -^ water. More protein than many vegetables, also 
asparagin (nitrogen compound). 

Spinach — over T 9 ¥ water; protein I to 4 carbohydrates. In potatoes 
protein 1 to 10 carbohydrates. 

Beans — nearly i protein (more than in meat) ; less fat than other veg- 
etables or cereals ; ash equal to that of cereals ; rich in potash and 
lime. String beans nearly T 9 ¥ water; as eaten, protein 2| per cent. 
Lima beans as eaten have more protein, as pods are discarded. 
Nutritive and aid digestion of other foods. 

Peas — similar. Nutritious as vegetable or soup. Canned may be col- 
ored undesirably with copper salts. 

Lentils — similar, but smaller. Nutritious. 

Peanuts — similar to beans but much more fat. Like beans, peas, lentils 
(leguminous). All legumes digest slowly and require much intestinal 
work. 

For starch, sugar, and some minerals (these furnish) Heat Energy 

Potatoes — white : \ water ; \ starch, mainly ; salts, -| potash, \ phos- 
phoric acid ; -^ protein. Sweet : more solids ; 6 per cent sugar ; 
keep less well (starch more stable than sugar). 

Corn (sweet, green) — -| water ; \ solids (A starch, \ sugar, ^L protein when 
young). (Carbohydrates increase with ripening.) 

Parsnips — over -| water ; 3 per cent sugar ; 3 per cent starch, exceed- 
ingly fine grains ; more fat ; salts, \ potash, A phosphoric acid (see 
potato above) ; more fiber, increasing peristalsis ; more flavor pro- 
moting palatability. 

Beets — i the solids of potato, solids \ sugar. 

Carrots — similar, but no starch ; sugar and pectose as carbohydrates. 

Turnips — similar, no starch nor sugar ; pectose mainly as carbohydrates. 

Squash — similar, with food-solids starch mainly. Pumpkins similar, but 
less solids. (Sugar is soluble, so dissolves in water. Baking pre- 
vents loss.) 

(Facts stated above are in the main from Snyder's " Human Foods.") 
PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 9 



VEGETABLE CHARACTERISTICS 



MATURITY 



Plants live. They grow from seeds. They develop the 
constitution of their plant family. Their developing is called 
maturing. They blossom, bear fruit, and produce seeds. This 
process repeated season after season is known as reproduc- 
tion. Nature's method of continuing the life of vegetation 
is by physically renewing thus its products. Plant life gives 
definitely the processes of plant-living. 

The readiness of plants for food-use and for reproduction 
of their kind is not usually the same, because in forming the 
seed the plant changes itself. The seed itself may be suitable 
food. When the seed is a human food the rest of the plant 
usually is not, as bean-pods. Cucumbers gone to seed are 
not good food, nor are potatoes raised for seed. When other 
parts than the seed are used for food, these are usually desir- 
able when young or when just full-grown. Cellulose in young 
plants is tender, later woody. Green vegetables are therefore 
better young. Starch increases with maturity. Sugar when 
present does, too. Foods valued for these constituents are of 
course desirable only when these are produced in them. 

Living substances in the main form human foods. Usually 
anything in food not derived from something that lives itself 
is not human food. Often such substances when introduced 
into food are not included in order to nourish the body, but to 
keep the food from such deterioration as would make its use 
impossible. It is only commerce overkeeping food and indus- 
try using inferior food that introduce non-food materials exten- 
sively into human food. Some condiments are of other than 
direct living origin. Common salt is, and is necessary to life. 

Experience in living has taught humanity in which stage 
of development each plant is best as human food. This age- 
long habit is followed in choosing vegetable foods. 

10 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



ALL VEGETABLES 



VEGETABLE-PRESERVATION 



Conditions under which different foods retain desirable 
quality indicate the necessities in preserving them. Preser- 
vation of food is such treatment of it as will keep it in suit- 
able condition for human use. Green vegetables even in 
season are perishable. Prompt use is therefore the essential 
precaution against their deterioration. 

Plants are living until they decay. They need the condi- 
tions of life, as air to breathe, though after they are plucked 
they need no longer the requirements for growth, as food. 
For seasonal use low temperature, complete cleanliness of re- 
ceptacles and atmosphere, including protection from dust, are 
usually adequate attention in markets, shops, homes. 

Green vegetables lose freshness, and wilt. Some lose sweet- 
ness ; fresh corn and peas do. Since they need to be kept in 
cool, dry air, they should be in a clean, wholesome, well-ventilated 
cellar or refrigerator. Slightly wilted vegetables revive by stand- 
ing in water, but this may dissolve out their salts, also some pro- 
tein and sugar. Lettuce wrapped in a moistened cloth and 
placed on ice remains crisp. If leaves discolor, remove at once. 
Vegetables should not be washed until they are to be used, as 
such moisture may hasten decay or mold-growth. 

Starchy vegetables, such as potatoes and beets, need to be 
kept where it is cool and dry, and with little air in actual contact 
with them. They therefore keep well piled in cool, dark bins. 
The air of the room should, however, be fresh. Freezing and 
thawing changes vegetable-composition and should be avoided. 
Sprouting too renders a vegetable undesirable for food. 

The regulation of moisture, light, temperature, is important 
because the degrees of these affect differently the growth of 
the various bacteria as well as the natural processes of decay 
in the plant itself. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 11 



COOKING VEGETABLES 



IN GENERAL 



Cooking food tends to break it up, thus preparing it for 
digestion. Cellulose in vegetables needs loosening and soften- 
ing, so the nutritious substances associated with it may not be 
lost, because so fixed in this practically indigestible fiber that 
the digestive juices of the body do not reach them. Besides 
the aid of cooking, chopping vegetables fine assists in their 
digestion as often will treating a vegetable, as spinach, with 
vinegar. Thorough mastication always increases digestion. 

Germs in food are generally destroyed or rendered harm- 
less by cooking. This increases not only the safety of food 
but also the probability of undisturbed digestion. 

Flavors of food are sometimes developed by cooking, but 
they may also be lost. In cooking vegetables the latter is the 
usual danger. Those delicately flavored, as cauliflower, cannot 
be cooked long or in much water. Those with strong juices 
often need several waters and longer cooking ; cabbage may. 
Vegetables cooked uncut retain flavor that cut they would 
lose. Cooking-water from vegetables contains many of their 
nutrients, especially salts, which have dissolved out. It should 
be used in dressings or soups. This necessitates thorough 
washing of all vegetables and removal of too strongly flavored 
parts. Palatability of food is affected by flavor. Digestion is 
stimulated by palatable food. 

Young vegetables require less cooking than old. The dif- 
ference in starch present partly accounts for this. Starch 
inadequately cooked makes work for the body by burdening 
it with undigested food. Thoroughly cooked starch does 
work for the body by providing it with energy. All vegeta- 
bles need to be salted as they are cooked. Fresh vegetables 
require less cooking than wilted. The water lost must be 
returned in cooking ; the toughened fiber must be revived. 

12 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



SUMMARY 



CARE — PREPARATION — USE 



The structure of vegetables controls somewhat the manner 
of cooking. Rapid, hard boiling is needed for very much in- 
cased vegetables, as asparagus, especially if also delicately 
flavored. Baked food cooks in steam generated from the 
water in the food itself. The salts of foods are thus retained 
and the starch is more fully transformed for digestion. 

In cooking, physical striLcture changes, germs are destroyed, 
flavor is preserved or modified, preparation for digestion 
begins. 

The indigestible material in a food affects its nutritive value 
in several ways. The separation of it from the nourishing sub- 
stances is an essential precaution in food-preparation. Cook- 
ing, grinding or chopping, masticating, dissolving, aid. 

Raw food needs great care. Its freshness is of real value . 

Vegetables should be clean themselves, kept so, and han- 
dled by no diseased persons. Decaying vegetables are un- 
wholesome. The effect of unsoundness spreads beyond the 
parts seen as unsound. It rarely can be wholly removed by 
removing these. Germ-development is prevented by low tem- 
perature, pure dust-free air, and sunlight. Pure water too is 
protective against germs, so long as it remains pure. 

Intelligent care of food is a health-help, also an economy. 

What humanity has found suits its need is disclosed by the 
food-supply. This is general advice from race-experience. 
Living acquaints one with this. But only learning what each 
food is and does can teach when each should be used. Seasons 
and stages of development are given with the specific foods. 

Grains are more closely related in composition to legumi- 
nous vegetables than to other vegetable foods. They serve 
similarly in the diet. Fruits, spices, nuts, differ somewhat from 
grains and vegetables and serve different food-purposes. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 13 



VEGETABLE-SELECTION 



DIFFERENT VEGETABLES 



Vegetables have value in human diet only as they serve 
directly or indirectly some food-need of humanity. The condi- 
tion of vegetables affects their food-usefulness as much as does 
their kind. All kinds do not serve alike ; nor do all qualities. 
Inferior quality of the right kind for the purpose may even cause 
disease. All food should always be a health-help, strength- 
giver, work-aid. To make it so, it must be selected with knowl- 
edge of the food-need and quality of the food eaten. 

Selection of vegetables suitable for human use is a daily 
occupation of those determining the food of humanity. Food 
may through manipulation in preparation be made to appear 
well irrespective of its actual quality. This is to be avoided. 
It menaces health and may life. Safe and unsafe food, sound 
and unsound food, need to be easily distinguishable. Over- 
ripe tomatoes have developed in them acid not present earlier. 
This makes them undesirable and may dangerous. Prepara- 
tion with seasoning, as in catsup, may make such tomatoes a 
palatable food, but does not overcome the result in that food 
of the overripeness of the tomatoes. Such food-preparation 
is to be discouraged by disuse. 

Digestion is hindered by selection of unfit food. Mal- 
nutrition instead of nutrition results. Underripe food some- 
times contains undeveloped substances not ready for human 
use. Green apples do. Foods picked green rarely ripen natu- 
rally. Choose those gathered ready for use, and use promptly. 
Overkept food may have lost what it was desirable it should 
retain or may have developed what it is essential it should not 
have. Such food is both more exposed to contamination and 
less able to resist it. Vegetables may carry human disease 
from the soil, receptacles, or persons. They may also be 
diseased themselves. This destroys their value as food. 

14 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



PRECAUTION 



PLANT-PRODUCTION 



The human need for food is considered in Food Science, 
pp. 160-224. Precaution in production of vegetables is of 
great significance. Such food as green vegetables, being often 
eaten raw and being without covering to remove, such as fruit 
has, can carry disease from all sources. Fertilization of green 
gardens with waste products of living, as sewage, may propa- 
gate human disease and is to be avoided. Scrupulous cleanli- 
ness is essential with such foods. Even washing in boiled 
water vegetables to be eaten raw is advised if the purity of 
the water-supply is in any doubt. 

Plants show their health and vegetables their quality readily 
upon observation. But skill in seeing comes only with looking 
and learning for what to look. Plants droop and die when not 
sound or cared for well. Vegetables wilt and decay when their 
vitality is waning. Such indications show the state of health of 
the food itself. The human disease germs a food may carry 
may have no apparent effect upon the food itself ; the danger 
is to those who eat food so laden. Precaution against dust 
everywhere, flies, insects, and any form of contact with illness 
or waste-products is too little practiced anywhere. 

Vegetables differ widely in coarseness and fineness accord- 
ing to the care exercised in their production. This is notably 
so in lettuce. Superior production should be practiced. Such 
difference in food-quality is not to be confused with natural 
difference in degrees of fineness, as in cabbage and cauliflower, 
that are otherwise so much alike. Both these are desirable. 
Cabbage is coarse, yet it can be chopped and so prepared 
as to be a delicate food. This precaution should be taken. 
Cabbage is more digestible so. 

Digestibility of food as well as its composition determines 
its nourishing power. About 85% of vegetables is digestible. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS IS 



PLANT FOODS 



INCLUSION 



Plant foods include more than vegetables. Grains, fruits, 
spices, nuts are also products of vegetation. These enhance the 
beauty of Nature as well as aid in sustaining physical life. Many 
of them carry their charm into food and as food do more than 
nourish by supplying beauty too. They support life by further- 
ing the processes that make food of possible use to the body. 
The wonder of the working together of living things is nowhere 
more real than in the food realm. Food sustains life. What 
it is thus passes into what food does for the body. This in 
turn makes possible the work the person does. Plants bear 
fruit that bears further fruit through its value in human life. 

Grains have played a race-long part in the food of human- 
kind. Around them clings much of the mystery of the har- 
vest, celebrated wherever the fertility of Nature stirs the 
emotions of humankind. The compactness and richness of 
grains has made them symbolic of productiveness. Yet to 
humankind to-day grains as grains seem less human foods 
than many substances that appear in the form in which they' 
grow, such as vegetables, fruits, nuts. Grains lose their iden- 
tity in usually being ground into flours. 

With the coming of peoples from other lands have come 
too their foods for them and to us. Thus have come forms 
of grain foods new here and of value. Not a few of these are 
preparations that serve as vegetable foods, as does macaroni. 
See Foreign Foods, p. 214. 

Cereals have of late assumed greater importance as break- 
fast foods and for children. Though this is not denied them 
by science, science emphasizes it less than does commerce. 
Some cereals serve as vegetables ; hominy does. Rice (unpol- 
ished and uncoated) like potato serves as a palatable starchy 
vegetable. 

16 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



GEOGRAPHICALLY 



GRAINS 



The conditions under which grains will grow are such as to 
make their widely distributed growth possible. 



PROBABLE NATIVE HOME OF GRAINS 




(Redrawn from Frederic LeRoy Sargent's "Corn Plants." Used by permission and special 
arrangement with Houghton Mifflin Company, as are the cuts of different grains on pp. 20-21) 



DIAGRAM OF CROP-PRODUCTION IN UNITED STATES — 1909 



r^ir^^-^ 










Pfc'sff 










AV^ 






1 N. DAK, I • X /? — »- ^ne*V\ J> 








Hon't 














• o • 












/ ^"T - ^ / • 


wvo, j 




1 •••*./ „ 

1 • • ;/ n e v 










U . T &» 


/ COLO. 

1 • ••» 




.v.v.v.\ 

I K A N S. 






£i\- \ 






I.V.VAV 




1 1 ••••%%• 


¥frf^nf?5^it^ 






AR,7 


' N- M E X. 


!••••• A R K. AT51 \ •• • jfo.s. c-sr 
















• • • • • Liss. ala.A g J # »Y 












• 58,000,000 






U*J • fed v. • i*S2«v 




9 $0,000,000 to $8,000,000 






t» 84,000,000 to §6,000,000 








$2,000,000 to $4,000,000 






O Less than $2,000,000 




\ ° ^ l. FLA '\ 




The heavy lines (- 


— ) Bhow geographic divis 


\ l \n O] 





(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



17 



CEREALS 
WHEAT 



DISTRIBUTION 

ACREAGE BY STATES — 1909 




• 400,000 acres 
9 300,000 to 400,000 
to 300,000 
9 100,000 to 200,000 acres 
O Less than 100,000 acres 

The heavy lines( — ) show 



(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 



CORN 



ACREAGE BY STATES — 1909 



O 1 . 

\ ( N Ev 
it* \ O ' 

V \ I 

• 400,000 acres 

• 300,000 to 400,000 
a 200,000 to 300,000 
9 100,000 to 200,000 
O Less than 100,000 

The heavy lines ( — 


1 o 

° 4 H T^~' 

1 ~~i o 

H COLO. 
/ * 

1 ° 

acres V 
acres \ 

acres 

- ) show geographic divis 








>6J 

SSe.v-9 


/ N-DAK. \ S/7 

8 DAK. | »VL wlS.fC.ix p/ia 

• • • • J A • • J \ MICH.) J _^5-> 

»-^ •••••••• v-M li!iyv^ 


1 • | • • , 


mo. WMi*7Y •X^««<!J 

• • • • vt&5* m v oSCI-^t: — 


[ ••••• 

OKLA. 

(•••••• 

••••• 

• TEXAS* 
•••••9 


• • /•• 

ARK- / 
• ••Of 

h /•• 

Imiss. 


A\Avfr*/ 

M A \ GA. \/ 

•a ^ i 


ions \ I 


)fla\ 



(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 

18 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



IN UNITED STATES 

CEREALS 



CEREALS 

ACREAGE BY STATES — 1909 




{From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 19 10) 



Acreage in 


Barley 


Buckwheat 


Oats 


Rice 


Rye 


New England 


16,242 


28,725 


223,221 




13,221 


Middle Atlantic 


87733 


592,159 


2,518,886 




472,132 


North Central, East 


1,007,102 


139,971 


11,225,445 




968,558 


" " West 


4,762,928 


25,955 


15,710,495 




470,582 


South Atlantic 


15.561 


84,864 


1,368,832 


27,080 


157,546 


South Central East 


5,388 


4,772 


870,762 


560 


50,091 


" " West 


14^53 


121 


1,276,534 


582,523 


5,926 


Mountain 


313,606 


316 


1,164,204 




32,"5 


Pacific 


!> 475'893 


1,165 


801,062 




2 5,390 



{From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 

On five skeleton maps (or trace maps of the United States if such working-maps 
are not available) dot in the above facts as in maps shown for wheat and corn. Com- 
pare wheat and corn on maps showing acreage with the statement below. 

Cereals 191,395,963 Acreage in United States — 1909 



Barley 


Buck- 
wheat 


Corn 


Oats 


Rice 
(Rough) 


Rye 


Wheat 


7,698,706 


878,048 


98,382,665 


35, : 59,44i 


610,175 


2,195,561 


44,262,592 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



19 





Rice 



Oats 



CEREALS — COMPOSITION 

Cereals as human foods are grain-seeds. 

Grains are harvested when matured. 

Seeds are compact and rich in nutrients. 

Their richness is due to the germ that 
renews their life and also much plant-food. This supplies the 
needs for early plant-development when the seed becomes de- 
tached from the plant that has been its living connection with 
its food-supply. Thus another plant forms and later produces 
seeds. These reproduce again the part of vegetation the plant is. 

Composition of Cereals 



Water 


%IN 


Protein 


Fat 


CH 


MM 


14-3 


Buckwheat 


6.i 


L 


77.2 


1.4 


12 

12 
12 
IO 
12 


7 
4 
9 
8 

5 


Rye 

Rice 

Corn meal 

Barley 

Wheat, Winter 


7-i 

7-3 
8.9 

9-3 
10.4 


•9 

•4 

1. 
1. 


78.5 
794 
75- 1 
77.6 
75-6 


.8 
4 
•9 

•5 


I I 
12 


6 

8 

i 


Spring 
Graham (flour) 
Entire wheat 


ii.S 

137 
14.2 


1.1 
1.9 


75- 

70.3 

70.6 


•5 
1.2 


" 


2 


Oatmeal 


15.6 


7-3 


68. 


1.9 



The concentration of the nourishing substances and the 
widely distributed growth of grains make them foods of common 
value wherever humanity lives. The usual palatability of foods 
made of grain flours or meals makes their constant use in the 
human diet possible and desirable. Compare composition of 
cereals with that of other human foods. 




Barley 



General Composition 


of Human Foods 


Water 


%IN 


Protein 


Fat 


CH 


MM 


80-90 

7-i4 

40-60 


Vegetables 
Dry grains 
Meats 


I-I4 

15-20+ 
15-20 


1-2 

15-30 


3-85 
60 


2 -5 
2-5 

!-!5 




Rve 



20 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 





Maize 



CEREALS — PREPARATION 



Grains are prepared for human food. 

Dried they lose water ; milled, salts. 

Cereals require much water ; also cooking. 

The cooking-time for cereals not partially Corn - ear 
cooked indicates the difficulty of breaking up the grain so that 
its constituents can be made available for food. See table be- 
low. Starch is the chief constituent that requires much change. 
As always, it needs prolonged cooking to make it into the sub- 
stance (a form of sugar) that is soluble, therefore more digestible. 



Cooking Cereals 






(Adaptation of facts from Miss Farmer) 


Cereal 


Water 


Hours 


Cereal-Preparation 


Com meal 


i C 


3iC 


3 


Preparations of corn : samp, 






4 c 


i 


I C maizena, hominy, etc. 


Oatmeal (coarse) 


i C 


4 c 


3 


Preparations of oats: H~0, 
Rolled or Quaker Oats, etc., 






ifC 


•!• 


I C Rolled Avena 


Rice (steamed) 


iC 


2f-3iC 


4 l 


(Keep these preparations in glass 






(according 


to age) 


and stopper. Use promptly) 


Rye flakes 


iC 


iiC 


i 




Wheat (steamed 










and rolled) 


i C 


iiC 


t 


IVheatlet, Wheatena, Wheat 






3*9 


i 


I C Germ, Wheat Toasted 



Cooking with water changes proportions of ingredients : 
Raw oatmeal : W 7.2% — P 1 5.6% — F 7.3% — CH 68% 
Cooked: ^84.5% — Pz.8% — F fJ —CH 11.5% 

Different cereals, because of different composition, are advis- 
able at different seasons, according to their heat-giving power. 

Oatmeal, corn meal, (barley, rye, wheat) ground, gluten, hominy, rice. 
In winter, use from left to right. In summer, use from right to left. 

Cereals are cooked as gruels for infants and invalids in need 
of liquid food ; as porridge (with less water) for children. For 
adults in health, cereals are cooked as dry as palatability per- 
mits and should be thoroughly masticated to insure digestion. 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



21 



GRAIN FOODS 



QUALITY 



There are over 50 kinds of cereal-preparations on sale. 
More than half of these have appeared within a decade. They 
differ little in food-value. Their cost greatly exceeds that of 
the cereals from which they come. The original cereal is as 
valuable as a food. It usually needs longer cooking. 

Some of the protein of grains is gluten. The most glu- 
ten is found in the protein of wheat (14%) and rye (10%). 
Barley, buckwheat, corn, contain less gluten (7% -9%). This 
characteristic affects the usableness of a flour for raised bread, 
as it is the gluten that enables bread to be made into loaves. 

(Place 2T flour in cheese-cloth. Twist into bag and knead in water. 
Starch is thus removed. Gluten mass remains. Pull it.) 

Gluten if not creamy-white and elastic makes poor bread. 
As rye is the only flour besides wheat in which there is a large 
percentage of gluten, it is the only other flour valuable for 
raised bread. Other flours are mixed with wheat for raised 
bread or made into flat breads. 

Baked bread is from J to \ water. When J water, bread 
is poor and keeps poorly. It molds readily. Bread needs 
to be made of ingredients of good quality. Eating it, even 
masticating it, with other foods increases digestion of both it 
and them. Bread is a nutritious food of permanent palata- 
bility. Bread is combined in the diet with butter, eggs, milk. 
When these are in the bread eaten, they should be decreased 
in the diet. 

Rising-agents used in breads are yeasts and baking-powders. 
Baking-powders require less time to raise mixtures than do 
yeasts. But baking-powders leave a non-food residue ; yeast 
does not. Foods raised with baking-powders are therefore 
considered less digestible than yeast-leavened foods. 

22 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMBINED 



GRAIN FOODS 



The fact that starch is the principal ingredient of all grain 
foods and of starchy vegetables too makes each when pres- 
ent in the diet affect the quantity of the others desirable at 
the same time. 

Rich unsweetened flour foods unite nutritiously with soups 
and salads. Crackers are dry and have more fat and starch 
than bread and less protein. They combine with milk and 
cheese acceptably. Pastry to which fruits or meats are added 
in the making are substantial foods. Use as such. 

Sweetened flour-mixtures, as cake, because not desirable 
with meats, soups, salads, form another course in a meal. 
Fruits and ices supplement cake palatably. 

Grain foods are usually ground for human use. 



A~^ 




Grinding buckwheat 
PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



23 



WHEAT 



MILLING 



Many conditions affect somewhat the composition of grains. 
Wheats illustrate this. The variety of wheat, soil, climate, all 
affect the composition of the resulting grain. The constitu- 
ents that vary significantly are starch and protein. Wheat is 
planted in the fall or spring. It is called winter or spring wheat 
according to the time of planting. Winter wheats are usually 
softer than spring. Soft wheat contains less gluten (this is a 
protein) and somewhat more starch than hard. (See p. 20.) 

Different wheats are used differently. It is a very hard 
variety of wheat which is used in the manufacture of maca- 
roni. There are white and red wheats as well as hard and 
soft. The grinding of wheat-grains makes further differences 
in the grades of flours. These serve different purposes ac- 
cording to their constitution as well as composition. 

Constituents of the grain are not so arranged in it as to be 
found uniformly distributed throughout it. See diagram be- 
low. Starch is usually in largest quantity near the center and 
protein near the hull. Wheat-hulls themselves make the bran 
used by cattle for food. The proportion of mineral salts and 
protein in it are higher than in the flours used as human food. 
In bran : /* 1 5% ; salts, 8% 
In flour: P8%- 14%; salts, i%-2%. — Olsen 

Milling flour follows harvesting and winnowing. " Screening " removes 
everything not grain. "Scouring" cleans the grain. "Breaking" with heavy 
rollers grinds it. " Bolting " sifts it. There are 5 breaks and many siftings 
through bolting cloth of increasing fineness. 

Products of Milling 

"Scalpings," coarsest; "dustings," finest; all 

others are called "middlings." 
Siftings are mixed according to fineness. 
Wheat-grain Bran is last scalping and is cellulose mainly Wheat-grain 
(With covering) but with much protein and salts fixed in it. (No covering) 





24 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



WHOLESOMENESS 



FLOUR 



Bread, the " staff of life," is a staple food of humanity. 

Every one may not see a wheat-field and flour-mill as related 
to making bread. All may not even realize that flour is the 
principal ingredient in this, but it is. Descriptions of fields and 
mills show but vaguely the growth and activity through which 
flour is produced. Only seeing the processes makes real the 
part the field and mill have in their product — flour and its 
products, flour-mixture foods. 

(Ask parents or teachers to make such seeing possible. If it cannot be 
now, reserve it as something to be done when the opportunity offers.) 

Wheat grows from different seeds and at different seasons. 
It is ground into flour. It is milled as many different flours : 
as entire-wheat, graham, white bread-flour, pastry-flour, and 
macaroni-flour. Use, if possible, bread- and pastry-flour. 

Other grains, as rye, rice, corn, grow similarly. They are 
similarly treated and serve as flour or meal. See all flours, 
also different qualities. Use as many as possible. 

Flour is always the product of grinding grain. The quality 
of the grain, the mixing of the products of the various sift- 
ings, the care in handling and storing the flour, and the 
health of workers determine the quality and wholesomeness 
of flour-products. Grains must be dry and clean, and kept so. 
Otherwise they become diseased and carry illness instead of 
health-giving food to humanity. 

Composition of food substances largely controls their usefulness, 
but their characteristics control their usableness. 
What is in a food feeds the body. But how na- 
ture has arranged and composed food-materials 
affects whether they can be of use in the body. 
Bran even finely ground is not digestible. When 
mixed with other siftings, as in graham flour, it 
Oat-grain still does not digest and may irritate the intestine. Wheat 





PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



25 



FLOURS 



COMPOSITION 



Grains are dry. So therefore are the flours made from them. 
These contain relatively little water. Wheat flour of good 
quality takes up water to about two thirds its own weight. 

Starch is the substance of which there is most in flour. It 
forms about three fourths of the weight of flour. This makes 
flour-mixtures heat-giving and energy foods. Protein, the 
tissue-building substance in food, is present in flours in larger 
quantity than in most plant foods. There is approximately 
p io% — W io%— F i-2%— MM 1-2%. That amount 
of fat is large for plant foods. Animal foods contain much 
more. The mineral salts are present in relatively high propor- 
tion, but, as noted, are not always fully available to the body 
as they exist in grains and flours. 

Gluten is the constituent that makes a moist mass of flour 
cohere as it expands when heated. 

Comparison of the Composition of Different Flours 



Water 


Salts 


Fat 


%IN 


Protein 


Starch 


,j 


!. 


1.9 


Entire wheat 


14 


72 


ii 


1.8 




Graham 


l 3 


71 


12 


i-5 


I.I 


White 


II 


75 


IO 


i-3 


•9 


Macaroni 


13 


74 


13 


1. 


1.9 


Corn meal 


9 


75 


12 


•4 


•3 


Rice 


8 


79 



Wheat flour that is not creamy-white is usually inferior. 
Pastry-flour is wheat flour with the gluten largely removed. 

It is mainly starch. It makes more delicate mixtures. 
Macaroni flour is also from wheat. It has more gluten than is 

usual in wheat bread-flour. Macaroni is used as a vegetable. 
Corn meal and rice both lack gluten. When used in breads 

they need to be mixed with flour to be cohesive. Alone 

they are friable and crumble. Use as vegetables too. 



26 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMPARISON 



BREADS 



Raised bread is leavened bread, whether raised by yeast or 
other rising-agents. The earliest breads known were unleav- 
ened. They were made of ground grain mixed with water. 
They were formed into flat cakes and baked on hot stones or 
allowed to dry. It was noticed that dough grew in bulk while 
unbaked. This made it porous and light when baked. Bread 
is now thus made. 

Breads are to-day made of flour (preferably rich in gluten) ; 
water or milk ; yeast for leavening, with sugar to further fer- 
mentation ; salt for seasoning ; usually butter or lard to enrich 
and make tender in texture. 

It is gluten that holds the yeast distributed through the 
mass as the bread is kneaded. Later it holds the gas formed 
as the yeast grows. It is thus that the loaf is expanded. 
Baking hardens gluten, so forms the loaf. 

Comparison of Composition of Breads of Different Flours 



w 


MM 


F 


%IN 


P 


CH 


33 
36 

35 


1-3 

1.1 


•9 
1.8 

i-3 


Entire wheat bread 
Graham bread 
White bread 


10 

10 

9 


50 

5 2 
53 



Comparison of Composition of Different Breads 



w 


MM 


F 


%IN 


P 


CH 


1 
10 

3 + 

3 + 

3 + 


(Does not differ 
greatly) 


_1 

100 

2-JXO - 

Tiro + 
200 


Flour 

Bread 

Bread with lard 

Milk bread 


¥ 
1 
TO 

XT 

tV + 


! + 

2- + 
1 + 



The difference in water present in breads is slight, also that 
of starch. Milk adds the protein of milk and thus increases this 
in milk-bread by about 1 °j . Lard or butter slightly increases 
the fat. Water bread dries more quickly than the richer breads. 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



27 



BREAD-MAKING 



CARE 



In bread-making much happens. Science now explains the 
changes that occur. Yeast grows while in warm dough. This 
causes a fermentation. Carbon dioxid gas is formed, also 
alcohol. The gas and steam expand the loaf until high heat 
in baking checks further growth of yeast. This heat vapor- 
izes the alcohol, so it is not left in the bread. 

Besides the yeast that raises bread, other organisms are 
present. Many of these may produce undesirable effects, one 
of which is the souring of bread. This happens when bread 
has been allowed to rise too long or bread sponge is left un- 
covered. Active yeast and, after rising, prompt baking in a 
well-heated oven tend to prevent bread from souring or falling. 
Heating the milk used lessens such danger, as does warming 
flour before mixing bread. 

Baking bread may not destroy all germs present, but it 
lessens the probability of their further activity. As molds 
and bacteria readily grow in bread, it requires proper care. It 
needs to be kept in a clean, ventilated box, not exposed to 
dust nor handled by diseased persons.' Bread not made at 
home should be promptly wrapped after cooling. 

Science found in examination of ioo loaves from ioo shops 

14 unwrapped loaves each coated with over 10,000 bacteria. 

1 1 wrapped loaves from clean shops averaged only 371 bacteria each. 

85, wrapped had less than 1 000 bacteria ; 62% unwrapped more than 1 000. 

(From the Journal of the American Medical Association, July 6, 1912.) 

For children bread needs to be baked slowly at first. It is thus 
made drier. After the crust is formed the moisture is retained. 
Cooling bread uncovered in clean, fresh air makes the crust 
hard. In the crust itself some of the starch is converted into 
soluble form that tastes sweeter and is more readily digested. 
This happens also in toasting bread, especially in oven-toast. 

28 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



USE 



RISING-AGENTS 



Making flour-mixtures light has been brought about in 
different ways through the ages that cooking has been prac- 
ticed. Present-day methods probably include something from 
each of those of the past. But they are now applied with 
more accurate knowledge of what will happen. They can 
therefore now be used to do what is desired, while avoiding 
what would be unfavorable for human food. Better results 
are thus possible. 

Air that fills the spaces between the cells of food, when 
heated, expands. So does air that is beaten into food. When 
beaten egg-white is added to a mixture, air-leavening is the 
method of raising or making that food light. This is not 
equally applicable to all types of flour-mixtures. 

Through experience with such mixtures and foods in gen- 
eral it was observed that foods allowed to stand changed, but 
not always in the same way. Sometimes the change improved 
the food, sometimes it left it unfit for use. By studying these 
changes it was discovered that the atmosphere seemed to 
contain something invisible that caused this, as it did not 
occur when air was excluded. 

Among the changes noted were rising and molding of bread, 
souring of milk, ripening of cheese and game, decomposing 
of meat. It was further noted that some of these changes in 
food-substances were accompanied by gases being given off. 

From early times it has been known that a mixture of flour 
and water when it stood in a warm place would rise. The cause 
of this was finally found to be the growth in the mixture of 
yeast plants that entered it from the air. In growing and tak- 
ing their food for growth from the mixture it was discovered 
that they so broke up some of its constituents as to form the 
gas that expanded in the warm mixture and raised the mixture. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 29 



YEAST-ACTIVITY 



FERMENTATION 




Wild yeasts, as those of the air came to be called, have 
been studied, as have also the other organisms found with 
them, such as bacteria and molds. All do not act alike ; even 
all yeasts do not. The yeast now used in bread-making was 
found to serve that purpose well. It has since been sepa- 
rated and so used. It is not secured entirely free from other 
organisms, but when conditions favorable for its growth are 
provided, the result sought in bread-rising is obtained. 

The conditions for growth of the yeast-plant are suitable 
temperature and food. The yeast-plant multiplies by budding. 

a b c 

Yeast-platit developing during the pi'ocess of fer?ne?itation 
a, b, c, d, successive stages of cell multiplication. (After Green) 

The temperature most favorable for this is between yo° and 90 F. 
At i3i°F. and at freezing temperatures yeast-action is destroyed. At 
other temperatures not between 70 and 90 F. the action may go on 
slowly, but too slowly for a favorable result in food. Retarded yeast- 
activity permits other changes to occur through the development of other 
organisms. These may destroy the value of a food. In bread-rising the 
temperature needed for yeast-activity may be secured and maintained by 
keeping the pan of dough in a pan of water comfortable for the hand. 
(A thermometer should be used whenever possible.) 

The food of the yeast-plant is present in bread as now 
made. Sugar enables yeast to act as a leaven. Some starch of 
flour is converted into sugar in the form yeast uses. As it 
uses the sugar, the sugar is broken up. One of the products 
of this action is carbon dioxid gas. The formation and ex- 
pansion of this as it is heated produce lightness. The process 
of breaking up the food-substances of the yeast-plant into car- 
bon dioxid gas and alcohol is called alcoholic fermentation. 

30 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



LEAVENS 



PREPARED YEASTS 



Yeast, as it is used in bread- making, varies in form. It may 
be liquid, compressed, or dry. The form is not important, save 
as this affects the purity or keeping quality of the yeast. Though 
the gas produced by the development of yeast is not the only 
significant effect of its growth, it is this that makes yeast a rising- 
agent and valuable for leavening mixtures. Yeast must there- 
fore be so prepared and kept as to prevent the formation and 
escape of this gas before the yeast is introduced into the mix- 
ture to be raised by it. Bread made light by forcing carbon 
dioxid gas directly into it lacks the flavor of yeast-bread. 





Yeast cells greatly magnified Hop 

(After Conn and Buddington) 

Yeast is a natural leaven. It leaves practically no residue. 

When yeast is home-made, it is prepared by cooking pota- 
toes in water in which a few hops have been boiled. Some 
sugar and flour are added, and the mixture fermented by a 
little yeast called the starter. Home-made yeast may contain 
many bacteria and wild yeasts that do not produce essentially 
advantageous changes in food. 

The yeast of commerce is a by-product of distilleries or 
breweries. The usual form is that of compressed yeast. This 
is wrapped in tin foil and should be kept in a cool place. It 
decomposes easily mid produces therefore unfavorable changes 
when not fresh. Dry yeast is the same yeast-product mixed 
with starch or meal and dried. Yeast when dried thus is 
made inactive for a while. It therefore acts less promptly in 
a mixture than does compressed yeast but keeps indefinitely. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 31 



BAKING-POWDER 



ARTIFICIAL LEAVENS 



Baking-powders are artificial leavens. What nature does 
through the growth of yeast, humankind seek to bring about 
through baking-powders. The endeavor is to produce the ris- 
ing effect of yeast by incorporating in mixtures to be raised 
such substances as will give off carbon dioxid gas when they 
are united. Baking-powders as commercially produced and 
practically used are the result of this effort. 

They all contain carbon dioxid in some combination. Soda 
(sodium bicarbonate) and an acid when brought together give 
off carbon dioxid. This is the general combination of sub- 
stances used in baking-powders. To prevent the escape of 
the carbon dioxid until it is needed, the soda is mixed with 
starch. The acid substance cannot then unite chemically with 
the soda at once when these are brought together. 

The starch so used is called a filler. While dry the action 
between the soda and acid is prevented ; hence the necessity 
of keeping baking-powder in closed tin cans or glass jars. 
When the baking-powder is mixed with a flour-mixture it is 
then moistened. This causes the soda and acid to combine 
chemically and give off the gas that expands and raises the 
mixture, making it porous and light, thereby digestible. 

The time a baking-powder takes to form the gas that raises 
mixtures depends upon the proportions of its ingredients. If 
the proportion of the " filler" is large as compared with that of 
the soda-acid combination, then the powder acts slowly. Other- 
wise it is a quick rising-agent. The commercial value of a 
baking-powder is based upon its rising quality. The one with 
the most filler will cost least. The starch filler varies from l to 
^ the weight of baking-powders as purchased. 

In principle of action all baking-powders are alike, that is, 
they produce the necessary gas. 

32 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



BAKING-POWDERS 



DIFFERENT RESIDUES 



Baking-powders differ in the substances they leave in the 
leavened mixture. The hygienic desirability of a baking- 
powder is determined by the ivholesomeness of this residzie. 
None of these residues is necessary to the mixture and all may 
be more or less disturbing to digestion. Soda and starch are 
common to all baking-powders. These are practically harm- 
less. The acid element varies. It is through this that harm 
may come. There are three usual types of baking-powders. 

Cream-oj --tartar baking-powders contain cream of tartar and 
some tartaric acid. These act most quickly and usually cost 
most. Cream of tartar is left from grape-juice as wine is made. 
It leaves as a residue the active element of Seidlitz powders. 
This is laxative in its action. But so little is taken into the 
body in baking-powder foods that this effect is not appreciable. 

Phosphate baking-powders contain phosphoric acid in the 
form of phosphates. After the action of the baking-powder 
some of this substance is left in the food. It is not, as is 
sometimes seen stated, in the same form as the phosphates 
that are lost from grains in grinding nor is it of the same 
use in the body as these would be. This residue is pres- 
ent in these baking-powders in much larger quantity than the 
phosphates of the grains. It acts as a laxative. Phosphate 
baking-powders do not keep well. They may contain on this 
account an excess of starch as a filler. 

Alum baking-powders contain sulphuric acid in alkali sul- 
phates. These are considered harmful by physiological scien- 
tists. They hinder digestion by acting as an astringent, as does 
the substance commonly known as alum. Alum touched to 
the tongue puckers the mouth. Alum baking-powder residue 
taken in food acts similarly upon the digestive tract. 

Seek lightness of leavened mixture with freedom from insoluble residue. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 33 



HOME-MADE LEAVENS 



LEAVENING MIXTURES 



As commercial baking-powders are required by law to state 
their ingredients on their labels, no one need therefore use a 
rising-agent containing deleterious or doubtful residue . Through 
only ignorance, negligence or indifference will this happen. 

It is possible and economical to make excellent baking- 
powder at home, as follows : 

Soda {baking), 2 oz., mixed with starch, i-i± oz. (or 1 J-2J). Shake well. 
Crea?n of tartar, 4 oz. (from reliable druggist), added, and all well-shaken. 

The smaller amount of starch makes a more quickly active powder ; the 
larger a better-keeping powder. Both need to be made of perfectly dry 
ingredients and to be kept dry in covered glass or tin. Why ? 

In home cooking artificial leavens may be varied according 
to the effect of ingredients upon leavens themselves. With 
non-acid ingredients an acid-element is essential in baking- 
powder so that chemical action will liberate the gas that does 
the leavening of the mass. If any ingredients are themselves 
acid, as are sour milk and molasses, soda alone serves. The 
acid present then frees the gas from the soda. This method 
is a home practice that is sometimes used as a convenience 
or economy. It may improve a food ; for were a baking- 
powder used in acid foods the action would be too quick and 
a residue unnecessarily introduced. 

The time and way of mixing in rising-agents determines 
their effectiveness. They need to be active throughout a mix- 
ture and not to become active before the mixture is formed. 
Hence the usual sifting of these with flour and no moistening 
of them until action is advisable. Beaten eggs used to catch 
and retain air to leaven mixtures are folded in with care at the 
end of the mixing-process, that they may be effective in this. 

Interest in food-quality grows with knowledge about it and 
experience in endeavoring to secure a pure food-supply. 

34 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




Copyright, B. L. Singley By courtesy of Keystone View Co. 

A NORWEGIAN WOMAN BAKING FLAT BREAD OUT-OF-DOORS 

This bread is made of coarse barley-meal and water, then rolled thin and baked on 

a flat stone heated by a fagot-fire underneath. When baked this bread is kept in a 

dry place for winter use. It is said to be clean and palatable. 



FLOUR IN FOODS 



HOME-USED FLOURS 



Bread-flour is creamy rather than pure white, a little gritty, 
and coheres slightly when a mass is pressed together. The 
test of a bread-flour is the quality of bread it will produce 
when bread is skillfully made. This is the method used in 
judging flour as flour is manufactured. Pastry-flour is whiter 
and smoother than bread-flour. All the so-called patent flours 
are made of the middlings, so contain a little less protein and 
mineral matter and more starch than the usual bread-flour. 
Three times as much of such flour is produced as of bread- 
flour. Whole or entire-wheat flour results from grinding the 
entire wheat-kernel. Graham, flour is white flour in which 
some fine-ground bran has been mixed. 

Flour is sometimes bleached to improve its appearance. 
This is done with the more inferior qualities to remove their 
yellowish color. This practice is undesirable, as all food should 
reveal its quality by its appearance and be sold for what it is. 
It should also be free from all substances not part of itself. 
The mixing of different kinds of grains, when practiced, should 
be disclosed instead of concealed. Thus only can one know 
what is purchased and how it will serve as food when eaten, or 
select food that will bring humanity the nourishment needed. 

Bread needs to be made from reliable flour. Its general use 
in the diet is due to the fact it contains all food-constituents 
in significant quantity except fat. Butter used with it adds this. 
As all peoples now eat bread, so have all peoples in all ages. The 
breads eaten have differed and do differ. Over fifty kinds of 
bread are recorded as eaten in ancient times. To-day the kinds 
are numerous and the differences wide between white breads 
and the German black bread, the Scotch oat cake, the Swedish 
flat rye bread (baked only every six months) and the Jewish un- 
leavened bread that resembles a delicate, hard water cracker. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 35 



DIFFERENT BREADS W*m FLOUR-MIXTURES 

Yeast breads made with a variety of flours serve as the 
constant bread of humanity. Bread dough, besides being it- 
self made in many ways, is used as a basis for other foods, as 
doughnuts. These all vary somewhat. Some add fat that bread 
lacks. Others include more sugar, also fruit and nuts. 

Such changes in bread usually increase its heat-energy, but 
may decrease somewhat its digestibility. They produce variety 
in the diet and are used for this purpose where the supply of 
fresh foods is limited and living is largely out-of-doors. These 
conditions in the early days of New England effected many 
such modifications in flour-foods not now essentially needed. 

Starch, the principal food-ingredient in bread, because 
gradually digested, makes bread a food that so lasts as to 
prevent over-frequent need for food. Foods that increase fat 
and. sugar give in these more rapidly available energy than 
starch can. Starch must be made into a kind of sugar before 
it can be digested. In bread-baking the starch in the crust 
is changed to dextrin (a soluble sugar). Hence the advice to 
give children crusty bread. Adults by thorough mastication 
of food bring it more fully within the activity of the digestive 
juices than little children can. Adults can therefore use what 
children should not even try to digest. 

Baking-powder breads vary as do yeast breads. They may 
be plain or variously enriched. They are usually served hot, 
so require every care to make them digestible. They include 
muffins, breakfast and tea breads of all kinds, such as corn- 
bread, cereal and sweetened muffins, and biscuit. 

Many such foods introduce a number of animal food ele- 
ments in milk, butter, eggs, so are not as distinctly vegetable 
foods as bread itself may be. This does not decrease their 
value as foods, but modifies their use. 

36 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMPOSITION — USE 



BREAD-SUBSTITUTES 



The range of bread-substitutes is as great as the varieties 
of bread. These are not only many but come from every- 
where and even from many ages of the living of humanity. 
They are nevertheless of only three general types and can all 
be so grouped. These are : 
Simpler, thinner flour-foods, as buckwheat cakes and fritters of all types, 

batter cakes and batter-covered foods. 
Sweetened 'flour-mixtures more delicate than bread and usually very pal- 
atable, such as all cakes, cookies, and many puddings. 
Enriched flour-mixtures more crisp than bread, due to increased fat (but- 
ter or lard). Often these are more appetizing than digestible. Such 
are pastries and even crackers (except cereal crackers that are simply 
hard-baked cereal-flour-and-water- or milk-mixtures). 

Note in the table below the differences in crackers, cake, 
and breads. Which has most fat ? least water ? most protein, 
ash, carbohydrates ? 
Composition of Bread, Cake, Crackers 



Water 


Protein 


%IN 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Ash 


43-6 


54 




' Brown 


47.I 


1.8 


2.1 


38.4 


97 




Whole wheat 


497 


•9 


i-3 


35-7 


8.9 


Breads 


Graham 


52.1 


1.8 


J-5 


35-7 


9- 




Rye 


53-2 


.6 


i-5 


35-3 


9.2 




I White 


53-i 


i-3 


1.1 


19.9 


6-3 


Cake 


63-3 


9- 


i-5 


6.8 


9-7 


f Cream 


69.7 


12. 


17 


4.8 


n-3 


Crackers \ Oyster 


70.5 


10.5 


2.9 


5-9 


9.8 


I Soda 


73- 1 


9.1 


2.1 



(From Food Bulletin No. 142, United States Department of Agriculture) (Rearranged) 

Since these foods are all largely flour, they take the place 
of one another in the diet ; that is, no two of these are eaten 
together. When two are eaten at the same meal, less of each 
should be than when alone. Cake or pie as dessert makes less 
bread with such a meal desirable. Cake and pie usually can- 
not, however, directly take the place of bread. 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



37 



FRUITS 



IN NATURE 



The f ruitf ulness of the earth stirs every one that at all realizes 
it to a sense of wonder. Each fruit of plant or tree, when known 
for what it is, seems one of the greatest of the marvels that so 
abound among living things. Vegetation has for every season 
characteristic charm. Springtime brings anew evidences of 
growth; summer matures ; autumn reaps; and winter keeps alive 
for nature's use what is needed to renew the life of vegetation 
and sustain that of animals and humanity. Fruits mean more in 
the life of vegetation than simply supplying refreshment to 
humanity. But as human foods, it is refreshment that fruits 
uniquely bring. Some are also distinctly nourishing, as bananas. 

Fruits and vegetables are similar in composition, but differ 
in some very significant respects. Both contain much water, 
mineral matter, some cellulose, and protein. (Though most 
fruits have little more than i f / c of protein, this is not an in- 
significant proportion of their solids ; often it is 2%— 10$ . 

Average Composition of Fresh Fruits 



w 


AS EATEN 


Water 


Sweet Fruits 


Sugar 


Acid 


Mine- 
ral 


Pro- 


Fat 


Fiber 


Acid Fruits 












Salts 


tein 








% 


% 




% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 




35 


75-8 


Bananas 


21.7 


•3 


•5 


'■3 


.6 


1. 




5 


78.4 


Plums 


20.1 


1. 


• 5 


1. 


— 


— 






81.9 


Huckleberries 


16.5 


— 


•3 


.6 


• 5 


— 




25 


77-4 


Grapes 


14-5 


.6 


•5 


i-3 


1.6 


4-3 




— 


85.3 


Pineapples 


12.2 


•7 


•3 


•4 


•3 


•4 




25 


84.6 


Apples 


"•3 


•7 


•3 


.6 


•5 


1.2 




6 


85. 


Peaches 


10.8 


•5 + 


.6 


• 5 


•5 


— 




— 


86.3 


Blackberries 


10.9 


.8 


•5 


!"3 


1. 


2 -5 




— 


85- 




10. 


!-5 


.6 


1. 


— 


2.9 


Raspberries 


— 


88.9 




8.4 


2 -3 


.2 


•4 


.6 


*-5 


Cranberries 


6 


90. 




6. 


1.1 


.6 


1. 


.6 


1.4 


Strawberries 


27 


86.9 




57 


1.4 


■5 


.8 


.2 




Oranges 


30 


8 9 -3 




■4 


54 


•5 


1. 


•7 


1. 1 


Lemons 



(Constructed from a variety of analyses) 



38 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



FRESH 



FRUIT FOOD 



Those foods nourish most that have least water. Among 
vegetables potatoes, corn, peas, have least water, so more nu- 
trients, that is, substances that nourish. Bananas have least 
water among fruits, therefore give most nourishment. 

Fruits, like vegetables, are of two somewhat distinct kinds, 
though this is not readily seen except by comparison of the 
extremes, as bananas and oranges. As starch decreases in 
vegetables (from potatoes to tomatoes), so sugar does in fruits. 
Fruits are sometimes distinguished as "food " and " flavor " 
fruits in recognition of this difference. But all fruits have fla- 
vor and value besides furnishing heat-energy, which both their 
sugar and acids give as these are broken up in the body. 

Mineral salts in fruits, such as potassium, are especially im- 
portant to the body. They are in a form in which the body 
can use them. It is only as these are associated with organic 
matter, as they are in fruits through plant-growth, that the 
body can assimilate them. The flavor in fruit is produced by 
their complex oils, with their organic acids, sugar and water. 
Organic acids in fruits, though much alike, are not the same. 
Apples contain malic acid, as do tomatoes ; oranges and lem- 
ons, citric; grapes, tartaric. (Baking Powders, p. 33.) 

Degree of ripeness of fruit affects its value and usableness 
as food, since its composition changes as it matures. Unripe 
contain more cellulose, starch, pectin, and acids. 
Composition of Apples as they Develop (Adapted from "Pure Foods") 



Solids 


Water 


Per Cent in 


Sugar 


Starch 


Malic Acid 


18.5 
20.2 
19.6 
19.7 


81.5 
80. 
80.4 
80.3 


Very green 
Green 
Ripe 
Overripe 


Cane Invert 

1.6 6.4 

4. 6.5 
6.8 7.7 

5.3 8.8 


4.1 

3 '1 


I-I + 

•6 + 

•5- 



(These specific analyses differ from averaged analyses, p. 38) 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



39 



FRUIT CULTIVATION 



AIMS 



Science experimentation in modifying living things has in no 
realm of life had more effect upon products than in fruit-bearing 
vegetation. Cultivation is always an effort to improve or re- 
fine a product found wild, or by combination of two to produce 
a third for variety or to secure together only the desirable 
qualities of each. Grafting and cross-fertilizing are used to do 
this. In cultivation two efforts are made, namely, to decrease 
the cellulose in fruits and to improve flavor. 

Some foods are palatable both wild and cultivated. This is 
true of strawberries, though wild differ from cultivated. Moun- 
tain cranberries are more palatable and delicate than those of 
the low-lands bog-cultivated. But by cultivation only are some 
foods brought into form to render them acceptable human 
foods. Apples untended return to a wild state that is a stage 
in their development below the level where they became a de- 
sirable addition to the diet of humanity. 

Seedless foods are the opposite extreme of wild. The latter 
are self-grown and bear the seeds that reproduce. Human- 
grown fruits are cultivated for human food. They are con- 
trolled in their growth, so far as control can be exercised, for 
their improvement as human foods. A fruit without seeds has 
in it what otherwise would have gone into making seeds or it is 
in the more tender, less mature stage before seeds form. Thus 
cultivated seedless fruits are usually more delicate and may be 
more nutritious too. Sometimes, however, the loss of natural- 
ness in such forced growth is a loss of vital quality. But usually 
the fruit is preferable as food, as are seedless oranges. 

Cultivation of fruit has greatly increased of late years, due 
to the greater importance attached to it as food and to devel- 
opment of regions especially suited by soil and climate to its 
growth, combined with extension of transportation facilities. 

40 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 






SEASONS 



FRUIT-PRESERVATION 



Nature's spring supply of fresh food begins with early green 
vegetables, as lettuce and radishes. These are followed by 
young starchy vegetables, as beans, and later by such as mature 
late, both starchy and green, as potatoes and tomatoes. The 
season for fruits opens with early berries and ends with late 
apples. Using fresh foods as they become abundant secures 
the best food-supply, also the most economical. 

Some such foods are necessary at other seasons. This need 
is met by storing or preserving them for out-of -season use or 
by transporting them from other climates where they grow at 
other seasons. Foods that contain starch keep well because 
starch is stable, that is, not easily changed. It is because starch 
does not readily change that it is indigestible raw. Foods to 
be eaten raw must contain little or no starch ; lacking this 
stable substance, they keep less well. 

Green fruits contain much starch. The plant as fruit ma- 
tures has the power to change starch to sugar. As fruit decays 
or fruit-juice ferments, sugar is changed further and alcohol 
is formed. This is the process of wine-production from grapes 
that are themselves i- to J sugar. Cider is thus derived from 
apples that are ■£$ to \ sugar. 

To have fruits fresh for out-of-season use they must be trans- 
ported or stored. Bacteria usually are the foes of food. Low 
temperature delays or destroys bacterial growth. Temperature 
lowered sufficiently to do this, but not so low as to freeze the 
fruit, preserves fruit palatably during transportation or for six 
months of storage for reserved use. It is thus fresh fruit is made 
available throughout the year, but at high cost out-of-season. 

Fruits are dried and preserved by cooking for deferred use. 
Drying deprives fruit of moisture until desired for use. Re- 
turning water to it revives it and its flavor somewhat. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 41 



FRUIT PREPARATIONS 



PROCESSES 



Fruits stored are kept as nearly as possible in a fresh state. 
Dried fruits have lost water and may contain chemicals used 
to prevent development of mold ; these act also as a bleach. 
Desiccated fruits have water withdrawn from them by expo- 
sure to moisture-free heated air. The rapidity of such drying 
averts the possibility of mold or bacteria growing. 

Canned fruits are cooked. Only such fruits as are palatable 
cooked should be canned. Bacteria must be kept out after 
cooking. Sealing, with air excluded, is the household practice. 
In the laboratory it has been found bacteria do not pass 
through cotton. Where canned food is not to be shipped it 
can safely be stopped with cotton. Jams and jellies are 
covered with paraffin for the same purpose. 

Jams and jellies are fruit-juices concentrated by boiling 
fruit with sugar. Jams contain most of the fruit. Jellies have 
the cellulose (woody fiber), skins, and seeds strained out. Jel- 
lies are congealed, strained fruit-juices that have combined 
with the sugar added in boiling. The pectin (i%) and acid 
(J-%) make this jellying of fruit-juices possible. Tart fruits 
usually contain pectin and acid in the proportions needed to 
cause jellying when the amount of sugar required by each fruit 
is added. Sweet fruits may lack the acid necessary. This 
lack may be overcome by using the fruit somewhat green, by 
adding the acid from grapes (tartaric, used in baking-powder), 
or by adding some of an acid fruit. The last is the preferable 
method. 

Specific preserving processes are special cookery problems, 
but the facts stated above give the principles that direct such 
food-preparation and through which it is understood. Com- 
merce markets some jams and jellies of somewhat artificial 
composition. (See p. 44.) 

42 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



JAMS — JELLIES 



FRUIT IN DIET 



Dried fruits lose freshness, but in losing water increase the 
proportion of their nutrients (nourishing substances). Grapes 
and raisins differ thus, as do also plums and prunes. Such 
fruits are concentrated foods, because in small bulk there is a 
high percentage of nourishment. (See table below.) Such 
dried fruits are wholesome, but are not substitutes for fresh 
fruits. They serve the body differently. They are principally 
heat-energy-giving. They combine appetizingly with grain 
foods, increasing their heat-power and palatability. 

Composition of Fresh Fruits (F), Jams (/j), and Jellies (/ 2 ) 



Water 


%IN 


Sugar 




Acid 




Protein 


Ash 


f A A 




f A A 


F 


A 


/. 


f A A 


f AJ % 


85.4 36.8 40.8 


Apple 


11.3 54.6 53.8 


•7 


•3 


•3 


.6 .2 .2 


•3 - 2 -2 


5- 36.7 


Crab-apple 


58.6 










1 


.1 


86.3 43.6 40.4 


Blackberry 


10.9 47.8 57.4 


.8 


•9 


•S 


i-3 -7 


2 


•5 -5 -3 


80.1 44.4 36.3 


Grape 


16.5 44.8 62.8 


.6 


•7 


•s 


i-3 -5 


2 


■5 -7 -5 


81.9 37. 


Huckleberry 


16.5 57. 






•3 


.6 


1 


•3 -3 


86 31.4 


Orange 


5-7 65.5 


1.4 




.2 




4 


•3 


88 34.4 30. 


Peach 


10.8 59.6 65.3 


.6 


•S 


•3 


•7 


2 


.7 .2 


84.4 38.5 30.9 


Pear 


1 1.4 46.9 65. 








•3 


2 


•4 -3 -3 


85.2 26.1 19.7 


Pineapple 


12.2 60.5 78.8 


.8 


•3 


•3 


•5 -3 


4 


•4 -3 -4 


78.4 49.6 54.4 


Plum 


i3-3 3§- 4i-9 


1. 


1. 


1.1 


.4 .5 


4 


•5 -5 -7 


33-4 


Mixed fruit 


634 






•4 




1 





(Under .05 is dropped ; over .05 is considered .1) Constructed from Olsen's " Pure Foods " 
DRIED FRUITS COMPOSITION (Arranged from Norton's « Food and Dietetics ") 



Refuse 


Water 


%IN 


Carbohydrates 


Protein 


Fat 


Ash 


IO 


15-4 


Dates 


78.4 


2.1 


2.8 


i-3 


IO 


14.6 


Raisins 


76. 


2.6 


3-3 


3-4 




17.2 


Currants 


74.2 


2.4 


i-7 


4-5 




18.8 


Figs 


74.2 


4-3 


•3 


2.4 


15 


22.3 


Prunes 


73-3 


2.1 




2-3 




28.1 


Apples 


66.1 


1.6 


2.2 


2.1 




29.4 


Apricots 


62.5 


4-7 


1. 


2.4 



Food facts concerning composition and digestibility of foods show their 
nutritive value, therefore, in how far they are equivalents of one another. 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



43 



FRUITS AS FOODS 



DIGESTIBILITY 



Food scientists have found some jellies and jams made 
with a common fruit-juice (apple) labeled differently, though 
varied only by different flavors, natural or artificial ; and 
others of gelatin similarly flavored and sweetened with glu- 
cose instead of sugar ; and even some entirely alike also 
labeled differently. 

Preserving fruit adds sugar, usually pound for pound. This 
makes such foods highly heat-energy-giving, so cold-weather 
foods, while fresh fruit is refreshing food of value in summer. 
Living quality and freshness of food cannot be overvalued. 

Starch changes to sugar as fruit ripens, and acid lessens. 
(See p. 39.) Cooking unripe fruit changes starch thus, too, 
so makes it digestible as it is not when raw. 

Vegetables develop starch as they mature ; fruits, sugar. 
Fruits contain organic acids (1-50$ of their solids). Fruits 
have also very complex oils and aromatic substances in small 
quantities which give them their characteristic flavors. Fruits 
also contain some gums (pectin or pectose), to the presence of 
which is due the congealing of fruit-juices when boiled with 
sugar. Pectin is more abundant in unripe than in ripe fruit. 






Digestibility of Fruits 



(After Dr. Gilman Thompson) 



Easily digestible 
Digestible 
Less digestible 
Indigestible 



Apples (baked), prunes (stewed), grapes, oranges, 
lemons, banana meal 

Apples (cooked), peaches (ripe), figs, grapes, oranges, 
lemons, strawberries, raspberries 

Apples (raw), prunes, pears, apricots, bananas, cur- 
rants (fresh), melons 

Currants (dried), citron 





44 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



FUNCTIONS 



FRUITS AS FOODS 



Fresh fruits promote body well-being principally. Fruits 
are heat-energy-giving mainly according to the sugar natural 
in them or added to them. The acids and pectin in foods 
add some heat-energy. Fruits differ most in sugar and water 
present. Dried and preserved fruits are less wholesome than 
fresh, ripe fruit. 

The slight variation in the quantities of the other constitu- 
ents little reveals the many individual distinctions among 
fruits. Though these small-amount constituents are the ones 
that distinguish fruits from other foods and act much the 
same in all fruits, they are not all equally favorable for all 
individuals. Oranges, apples, strawberries may signally fail to 
agree with individuals. No class of foods shows this indi- 
vidual difference more markedly than fruits. Change in food- 
combination may make an unacceptable food digest. Change 
of season or climate may. But if a food persistently does not, 
it should be avoided. What does not digest does not nourish, 
and becomes a harmful agency in the working of the body. 

Ripe fruits, fresh and well washed as eaten, are free from 
the dangers of unripe, dust-laden, or decaying fruit. Raw 
starch, excess of acids, and cellulose make unripe fruit unsafe 
food. Fruits eaten between meals and at the beginning (when 
not exceedingly acid) are laxative, so aid the body to keep free 
from waste products ; as do also green vegetables. 

Laxative fruits are apples, dates, figs, prunes, peaches (ripe), berries, 
orange- and grape-juice. (Berries are inadvisable for young children. 
All fruits for children should be skinned and seeded.) 

Uncooked fruits are somewhat more laxative than cooked. 




PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 45 



NUTS AS FOOD 



USE IN DIET 



Nuts, like cereals, served as sustaining human food in ear- 
lier times. Later, nuts passed to use as diet-accessories, that 
is, food incidentals to substantial diet. When vigorous out- 
door exercise was the common practice, food could be exces- 
sive, and health somewhat maintained. But with less physical 
activity, ill-health is the invariable outcome of an overburdened 
and overworked digestive tract. 

As science has developed and engaged in a study of human 
nutrition, what all foods contain and do has been investigated. 
Hardly anywhere in the food realm has more light been shed 
upon diet-mistakes than in the use of nuts. Their very use 
in nature would make them compact, concentrated foods, as 
seeds must be to nourish the living germ as it sprouts and 
becomes a plant. Then only is it equipped to take nutriment 
from nature's sources outside itself. 

The wisdom of earlier peoples is usually carried longest by 
those whose resources are so limited that they cannot afford 
to lose what experience has taught others or to overlook what 
has been found good and cheap. Among such, nuts have 
continued in use as foods for nourishment. From them have 
come palatable nut-preparations, as cooked chestnuts (a starchy 
food of delicate flavor) and peanuts, a building and energy 
food. Many food-uses of nuts are now practiced, as grated 
nuts on thin soups and green salads to add what these lack. 

Compare composition of nuts with that of other foods in table. 

General Composition of Common Foods 



Water 


% in • 


Fat 


CH 


Ash 


Proteix 


2-10 
40-60 

80-90 


Nuts 
Meats 
Grains (dry) 
Vegetables and fruits 


25-60 
15-20 

*-3 

1-2 


15-20 

60 
3-35 


?-5 

I-I5 

2-5 

2-5 


5-20+ 

I5-20 

15-20 + 

1-14 



45 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



PRODUCED 



NUT FOODS 



Nuts nourish. Though they build, they are principally 
energy-giving, due to large percentage of fat. Fat gives over 
twice as much heat-energy as the same quantity of carbohy- 
drates. Nuts digest slowly ; they need thorough mastication. 

Study of Composition of Different Edible Nuts 



Ref- 


AS EATEN 
















use 


Water 


Nuts 
(Shelled) 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Ash 


Protein 


Nuts 
(Unshelled) 




% 




% 


% 


% 


% 




3 2.6 


1.6 


Peanuts (roasted) 


49.2 


16.2 


2-5 


30-5 






2 




Peanut butter 


46.6 


17..I 


5- 


29-3 




26.4 


9 


3 


Peanuts 


42. 


18.7 


2.1 


27.9 




— 


4 


2 


Pistachio 


54-5 


15.6 


3- 1 


22.6 




64.8 


4 


8 


Almonds 


54-9 


17-3 


2. 


21. 




58. 


2 


8 


Walnuts 


64.4 


14.8 


i-3 


16.7 




5 2 -i 


3 


7 


Filberts 


65-3 


J 3- 


2.4 


15.6 




497 


2 


9 


Pecans 


70.8 


14-3 


i-7 


10.3 




— 


3 


5 


Coconut 
(shredded) 


57-3 


31.6 


i-3 


6-3 




49.6 


2 


7 




33-6 


3-5 


2. 


8.6 


Brazil-nuts 


62.2 


1. 


4 




25-5 


4-3 


~.'s 


5.8 


Hickory-nuts 


16.1 


3i. 






6.7 


39- 


i-5 


5-7 


Chestnuts 


86.4 




6 




8-3 


•5 


•4 


3-8 


Butternuts 


48.8 




7- 


2 




25-9 


i4-3 


•9 


2.9 


Coconuts 



(Adapted from a government bulletin, " Nuts as Food ") 

Nut-cultivation is recent in the United States (Califor- 
nia and Texas). In 1909 there were produced 62,328,000 
pounds; increase of 57.7% in ten years. In 1909, value 
of crop was $4,448,000; increase of 128.1% in ten years. 
Walnuts (Persian or English), pecans, almonds, constituted 
nine tenths of nut crop. Walnut crops doubled in ten years ; 
pecans tripled. 

Nut-farms have multiplied rapidly in the United States. 

(All data on crops are from "Abstract of the Census — Agriculture.") 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



47 



NUT- AND FRUIT-PRODUCTION 



IN 1899-1909 



In 1909 the United States produced fruits and nuts valued 
at $222,024,000. This was 4% of the total value of all farm 
crops. It was an advance of 66.9% over 1899, or a gain of 
$133,049,000. 

Distribution of value of fruits and nuts in 1909 was 

Small fruits (strawberries, black-, dew-, and rasp- 
berries, gooseberries, currants, cranberries) $29,974,000 

Orchard fruits (apples, peaches, pears, plums, 

prunes, cherries, apricots, quinces) . . . 140,867,000 

Grapes (all varieties) 22,028,000 

Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, 

tangerines, mandarins) 22,711,000 

Other tropical and subtropical fruits, as figs, 

olives (see below) 1,995,000 

Nuts (p. 47) 4,448,000 

Acreage for small fruits in 1909 was .1% of total improved farm acreage. 

Strawberries (most important of these), \ of the small-fruit acreage 

and \ of value. 
4 

Production of orchard fruits in 1909: 301,117,277 bearing trees; 
216,084,000 bushels. California and New York led in these prod- 
ucts, that are in value 2.6% of all products. Apples (most impor- 
tant product), 59.1% of value of orchard fruits. 

Vine-culture in 1909 produced 223,702,000 bearing and 59,929,000 non- 
bearing vines. Production of grapes was 2,571,065,000 lb. Value 
.4% of all farm crops. California produced f of vines that yielded 
I of grape crop. 

Citrus-fruit production increased 231.1^ between 1899 and 1909 — from 
7,098,000 boxes (1899) to 23,502,000 (1909). California raised 
67.8% ; Florida, 28.7%. No increase in production was equal to this 
of citrus-fruits. Grapefruit led with an increase of from 31,000 
(1899) to 1,189,000 (1909). 

Subtropical and other tropical fruits raised in California and Florida in 
small quantities are figs, olives, pineapples, bananas, pears (avocado), 
guavas, mangoes, persimmons (Japanese), loquats, pomegranates, 
dates. Olive crop (raised in Cal. and Ariz.) tripled from 1 899 to 1 909. 

48 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



IN UNITED STATES 

FRUITS AND NUTS 



FARM-FRUIT-NUT CROPS 
VALUE BY STATES — 1909 



/°Sr7 v 

t4*\° UTa 

\ 1 

# $1,000,000 \— _ 
A $750,000 to 81,000.00O 
O $500,000 to 8750,000 
9 $350,000 to 8500,000 
O Less than 8250,000 

The heavy lines (— ) show 


"ONt. 


' wvo, 1 
o r 

i c .°. l .°- 

/ N. MEX. 
/ * 

geographic divi 




N V ^^~y7(*i >%J*r «jwss 

» \ « (M «••) ^»-* # *«K^!i 

Hi \ MICH. J XS5-*^rsL?J^r-t . 

rove L^r>^^ 

S /miss. ala.X qa. V^ 

J .9 ••! « 8 / 

\LA./ \ J 

/fla\ 
\d 9 \ 


N. DA K.\ 
O \ 


S. DAK. ] 

9 . 

N E B R . \ lj 


I KANS. 
• 9 


OK LA. 

• 

TEXAS 
• 9 

ions \ 1 



COTTON (COTTONSEED-OIL) 



ACREAGE BY STATES — 1909 













/ — i ; w °nt 

K^_ io *h^i — 

( /"~""^r-J Wv °- f 
\ I Ne v / — l — — J- 

V C Ai \ / (COLO. 
\ ° \ / 1 




_y i w>cHp j/t^^--^ 

OWA \ VHi'A P " 


r V" 5 


N. DAK.\ 


S. DAK. I 
N EBR. \ 


1 KANS. 
O 




"V N.C- x 

L FLA \ 

\ 9 \ 


— \ / ° i ^ — ~*~ 
^^ / i .•-•«• • 

* 400,000 acres ^-— Li k ' # * • • • • 

• 300,000 to 400,000 acres V ••••"•* 
9 200.000 to 300,000 acres \ * • • • 

9 100,000 to 200,000 acres V^y S. • • • 

O Less than 100,000 acres \ ^/ 

The heavy lines(«— >)show geographic divisions \ 


\ 7 < 

\ • • / 

(miss. 

1 • )•• 

\lA.L»V 



(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 
PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



49 



OILS 



n 



VEGETABLE 



Edible oils of vegetable origin come from a number of 
vegetable growths : olives, corn, nuts (as almond, peanut), 
seeds (as sunflower, poppy), and cotton. Olive-oil has long 
been used in the countries of olive-culture. The other vege- 
table oils are of relatively recent development as factors in the 
usual human diet. With the exception of olive-oil and such 
fats as are inherent constituents of most foods, fats as human 
food have been taken from animal foods, such as milk and pork. 

Olive-oil and most animal fats are considered more gener- 
ally digestible by all persons than the other oils that have 
more recently come into food-use. This is ascribed by many 
to their more wonted or agreeable flavor. The other oils now 
prepared as foods are sometimes by-products of processes 
that serve humanity in other ways. Cottonseed-oil is a not- 
able illustration of this. The more extended use of nuts as a 
substantial food has led to a new valuation of their fats and a 
marked and rapid development of their use in made foods 
also as substitutes for animal-fat foods, as peanut-butter for 
butter made from milk. These are not full diet-equivalents 
of the animal fats whose place in the diet they share. 
Fat in Human Foods (Compare percentages) 





% 




% 




Olive- and salad-oils 


iool 




f * 


Fruits 


Butter and salt pork 


8S 


supple- 


1 1 


Vegetables and bluefish 


Bacon 


64 


mentary 


1 ** 


Bread 


Chocolate and coconut 


So 




\ 7 


Oatmeal 


Ham 


40 "I 




f n 


Lamb 


Peanuts 
Cheese 


38 1 

33 J 


inter- 
* changeable " 


Is 


Beefsteak and salmon 
Beef roast 



Olive-oil is the most highly valued of salad-oils. It is also 
the most expensive. This leads to its adulteration or mixture 
with other oils. It needs to be kept pure for human use. 



SO 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



FOOD ACIDS 



VINEGAR 



Fruit juices have been noted as refreshing in effect. Fruit 
acids serve also some cooking purposes, as tartaric acid frees 
carbon dioxid gas in some baking-powders. 
The common acids in human foods are : 
Tartaric acid in grapes (1-5%), and in currants (5.8%). 
Malic " " apples (.9%), blackberries (.7%), strawberries (1.4%). 
Citric " " oranges (1%), lemons (7%). 

Vinegar is a manufactured food-acid. It is made from 
apples by fermentation that converts sugar into alcohol, then 
acetic acid. Though vinegar is also made from wine, mo- 
lasses, glucose, it is in all forms fermented. When pure any 
of these vinegars is satisfactory, though cider and wine are 
preferable. Spirit vinegar made from corn or barley malt, 
though cheaper to produce, is less palatable. 

Adulteration of vinegar, even with water, is easily accom- 
plished and often practiced. Law now requires that vinegar 
have acetic acid, 4% ; solids (of apple), i-|% ; ash, \°J C . Spirit 
vinegar may be colored and other additions made to give it the 
appearance of cider vinegar. No adulteration is ever advisable, 
and most adulteration is somewhat injurious, even when not 
obviously dangerous. Its object is always increase in profit. 
It is improved production that human health requires. 

Clear vinegar is the result of completed fermentation and 
protection from air. During the process of acetic fermentation 
vinegar is cloudy and forms deposits. " Mother " of vinegar is 
a fungus growth associated with the acetic-acid ferment. The 
acidity resulting from completed fermentation inhibits growth 
of more ferments. 

Glass, stone, or wood stopped receptacles must be used for 
vinegar, as it dissolves the household metals, iron, copper, tin, 
aluminium. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 51 



SPICES 



SOURCE — USE 



Spices come in the main from tropical plants. They are 
from roots, bark, flowers, buds, fruits, or seeds according to 
the plant-part containing the aromatic substance for which 
the spice is valued and used. The flavor of spices is gener- 
ally due to volatile oils, as in fruits. They dissipate odors 
that are usually agreeable. Heated volatile oils evaporate. 

Constituents of spices are similar. They are commonly 
volatile oils, mineral matter, tannin, protein, starch, fiber. 
These are in different proportions in different spices. The 
mineral salts differ somewhat and the oils so differ as to dis- 
tinguish the spices. Some spices are very pungent. Several 
spices are often mixed to secure a blend of flavors. 

Condiments are substances added to food to stimulate 
digestion. This is the function of spices. Mild stimulation 
of well-seasoned and well-served food promotes wholesome 
digestive activity. Excessive stimulation destroys natural 
vitality and hinders normal functioning of body. 

Common Spices Diet-Use 

Allspice, cloves, cinnamon (cassia), ginger, nutmeg (mace). Used in flour- 
mixtures, acid, oil, and sweet food-dressings. 

Pepper — black, white, red (cayenne and paprika); mustard. Used with 
meats, vegetables, and salad-dressings. 
Origin 

Allspice — dried fruit of West In- Cloves — immature flower buds of 
dian evergreen. clove tree. 

Cinnamon — inner bark of tropical Cassia — coarse outer bark and 
tree. buds. Chinese variety of cin- 

Ginger — rootstock of tropical herb. namon. 

X ut meg — seed of tropical tree. Mace — thickened cover of nutmeg. 

Pepper — dried berry of tropical shrub prepared as black and white. 

Cayenne — dried fruit-pods of tropical and temperate herb. 

Paprika — mild Hungarian variety. 

Mustard — seed of temperate-zone herb. Black and white varieties mixed. 

52 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



NATURAL — ARTIFICIAL 



FLAVORINGS 



Some plants contain fragrant substances that can be sepa- 
rated and used to flavor food. These are known as vegetable 
flavoring extracts. Those commonly so used are the essence of 
vanilla, almond, orange, lemon. Lemon and orange extracts 
when pure are made from the oil of the fruit-peels. This is dis- 
solved in alcohol. In the United States it is required that in 
these extracts one twentieth be the fruit-oil itself. Almond 
extract is oil of bitter almonds dissolved in alcohol. 

Vanilla is extracted from the vanilla-bean, the fruit of a 
tropical climbing orchid that grows naturally in Central 
America and West Indies and is elsewhere produced, as in 
Java and very favorably in Mexico. The process of preparing 
vanilla consists in drying the pods, during which fermentation 
develops the flavor. The extract is made by soaking chopped 
dried pods in alcohol and sugar. Vanillin (a crystalline sub- 
stance) combined with some resin, gum, wax, tannin, sugar, 
gives the flavor characteristic of vanilla. 

Tonka extract is used as a substitute for vanilla. Some- 
times it is mixed with vanilla. It is from the seed of a tropi- 
cal tree. The flavoring matter (coumarin) is less delicate than 
that of vanilla. Like all substitute food-substances it should 
be sold as itself. The Pure Food Law requires this. Both 
vanilla and tonka extracts are artificially produced. 

Twenty samples of commercial vanilla when examined 
showed that all except two contained less than the capacity 
of the bottle. All except one contained less alcohol than the 
amount (38%) in pure vanilla extract. Six only contained 
the amount of vanillin (1-2%) most desirable, which is that 
present in the bean considered best (Mexican). Other beans 
contain more. Seven contained tonka extract. 

The volatile nature of flavorings makes them pervade foods. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 53 



CONDIMENTS 



GROWTH — CARE 



Children need, in the main, to eat foods as flavored by nature. 

Flavorings are used to increase palatability of foods that 
are themselves without marked flavor. When volatile it is 
essential so to add them to foods that they will not be dissi- 
pated during cooking. 

Confections flavor a diet as flavorings do food. 

The sweet chocolate sold as a candy is usually nearly two 
thirds sugar. Adulteration of chocolate is possible and some- 
what practiced. Cheaper vegetable constituents are substi- 
tuted ; even some inorganic substances are used. Both are 
unfortunate. The latter may not be wholly safe. Pure choco- 
late and chocolates of stated composition are needed for all 
uses of chocolate. 

In 191 1 the United States imported $4,946,200 worth of 
spices and exported of these $245,622 worth together with 
$58,989 worth of domestic production. The quality of spices 
depends upon manner of growth and purity of preparation. 
Ground spices are easily and not infrequently adulterated with 
pulverized nut-shells and grain-hulls. Unground, adulteration 
is neither so simple nor usual, though still possible. 

Use of vinegar is primarily to promote palatability of food. 
In concentration it is slightly preservative. This limits its use, 
as it should not be consumed except in small quantity. Vine- 
gar is oxidized in the body, so yields energy. This is, how- 
ever, so insignificant that vinegar is not considered nutritive. 
It "cuts" oil, as does lemon-juice too. This so separates 
oil-particles as to increase ready digestion of oil. Olives are 
hand-picked and cold-pressed to prevent bruising and decom- 
posing, as both cause deterioration in the oil produced. Great 
care is necessary and exercised in its preparation to preserve 
its delicacy. 

54 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



DIET-USE 



CONDIMENTS 



Dietetic objections to foods are of several types. Glucose 
ferments more readily than cane-sugar. It is a cheaper prod- 
uct, and the foods containing it should be sold for less than 
those with cane-sugar. The rapid availability of glucose for 
use in the body leads to the danger of an excess amount of it 
being consumed, thus encouraging fermentations. 

Heating food frees it from bacteria producing putrefactive 
odors that would render foods unpalatable, but other kinds of 
bacteria not killed in cooking, together with those on uncooked 
foods, enter the intestinal tract, so it needs to be as free as 
possible of what will feed them. 

Complete use of food eaten depends upon the air breathed. 
If more than four parts of carbon dioxid are present in one 
thousand parts of air, respiration is impeded, digestion de- 
stroyed, health impaired. 

Plants at night do not eat and do breathe ; in breathing they 
add carbon dioxid to the air, so should be removed from 
sleeping-rooms. 

By its beauty nature nurtures humanity as well as nourishes 
with its fruits. 

What nature provides through the agency of vegetation 
grows in significance as humanity grows in knowledge of its use. 

The human system detects the effect of foods by its own 
physiological reaction to them. This is the test of desirability. 

The caffeine, theine, theobromine, that give regular coffee, 
tea, and cocoa their stimulating characteristics, and tannin 
(that is astringent and always undesirable), are present in 
almost incalculably small quantities in beverages as prepared. 
(Caffeine in coffee as a beverage is 1.24% of 1 oz. in 1 pt. 
of water, that is, less than .008 °/ .) But their presence even 
so may have a physiological effect upon the body. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 55 



BEVERAGES 



ORIGIN — USE 



The need of the body for water has led to the development 
of beverages. Some are palatable ; many stimulate ; others 
excite ; only a few nourish. 

Fruit juices unfermented, as lemonade, refresh, as do fresh 
fruits. Coffee and tea stimulate, giving to some a sense of 
vigor, which fails, however, to strengthen. These only sustain 
without nourishing. Alcoholic drinks of all types excite. 
They overwork and exhaust the nervous system, so that all 
that depends upon its wholesome regulation is undermined 
and ultimately destroyed. Milk preparations and cocoa nour- 
ish. These alone should be given to children. 

Tea is old in its use. Japan began to use it in 692 a.d. 
Other lands used it earlier still. As used it is oriental in its 
origin, exhilarating in its effect, astringent in its action, social 
in its service, interesting in its growth and production for use. 

Coffee too has known long use, nor is it confined to few in 
its customary consumption. It stimulates individuals differ- 
ently. For some it annuls sense of fatigue and fortifies for 
work. For others it destroys sleep and delays digestion. Its 
use is not to be overencouraged, but regulated it is of value 
under many conditions of adult life. Its moderate use is not 
commonly a food-abuse ; its overuse is a danger to health. 
Its adulteration and deterioration when ground are both 
possible and not unusual. 

Wines of all kinds are the preserved juices of fruits (com- 
monly grapes) with flavor developed through fermentation. 
They usually stimulate to the degree of excitement that undoes 
rather than develops strength for controlled activity. They 
are often associated with conviviality rather than self-regulated 
social intercourse. Nations differ in their use and in the 
effect of their native wines upon themselves. 

56 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



PREPARATION — COMPOSITION g^f; TEA — COFFEE 

Tea is steeped, not boiled. Delicacy of flavor depends upon 
this, as does wholesomeness too. Boiling extracts the tannic 
acid that causes the ill effects of excessive tea-drinking. Vari- 
eties of tea depend upon degree of its maturity when picked, 
where grown, and how treated in preparation for marketing. 
These facts are considered in connection with its growth. 

Coffee may be favorably made as a decoction (by boiling) or 
as an infusion (without boiling) . But the coffee-pot, like the tea- 
pot, cannot stand ready for immediate service at any time with- 
out carrying to those that partake of its contents what no one 
needs and any one will suffer from drinking. Such beverages 
must be freshly made to be palatable or safe. The growth of 
coffee is part of the industry of food-production, but coffee comes 
from nature. Nature is the invariable, inexhaustible source 
of supply for the demand of humanity for physical sustenance. 

Simple as tea and coffee seem as seen or tasted, viewed by 
science they are both found most complex. Three of their con- 
stituents especially concern those that drink them. These are 
tannin (astringent element) ; caffeine or theine (stimulating ele- 
ment) ; and the volatile oil that gives tea its flavor, and caff eol, 
the oil producing the aroma and flavor of coffee. Heat volatil- 
izes these oils. Tea or coffee that stands loses flavor, and tannin 
is increasingly extracted. All preparation aims to decrease this 
and develop flavor. Coffee contains less tannin than does tea, 
and black tea only half that of green. Caffeine or theine and 
volatile oil are about the same in teas. In coffee the oil (caff eol) 
is developed by roasting and caffeine is somewhat decreased. 

Adulterants follow all foods that are prepared without the 
first concern being for what foods do to persons. All sub- 
stances chemically alike, much less those only physically 
similar, do not serve the human system similarly. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 57 



TEA-CULTURE 






GROWTH — VARIETIES 



Tea is the leaf of the tea plant that is indigenous to Assam 
in Burma. For over fifteen hundred years it has been produced 
in Japan and China. Assam tea grows large but tender leaves. 
Its growth is luxuriant but needs protection from blights of 
drought and cold. A score of crops may be obtained in a season. 
Other kinds of tea produce three or four crops annually. Chi- 
nese tea is a hardy, coarser plant, less dependent upon soil, cli- 
mate, or water supply. Its leaves are tougher, smaller, darker. 

It is young leaves that are desirable for tea, hence their 
abundance is sought in tea-growing. The varieties of tea as 
purchased are but gradation of the leaves. The undeveloped 
bud is known as flowery pekoe. It is not usually imported 
here. The last developed leaves are called orange pekoe and 
pekoe (see below). Souchong and then congou come next. 
No more are used here. 

Any variety of tea may be made either black or green. 
Japanese tea is usually green ; Indian, black ; Chinese, both. 
Green is produced by withering leaves in iron receptacles by 
quick heating or steaming on mats. Leaves are then rolled to 
release oil and heated long at low temperature. Black tea 
is sun-wilted, rolled, spread thin, moistened, left to ferment, 
then furnace-dried. The fermentation makes tannin more 
insoluble, so less dissolved in making tea. 

In green teas hyson is a finer variety, gunpowder a coarser. 
Teas often carry the name of the 

location of their growth, as Ceylon. §v B-/t^7 orang7p^koe C 
Each has some distinctive char- 
acteristic due to its culture or 
manufacture. Teas obtainable in 
the United States are usually not 
the finest that nature produces. 




Pekoe 

Souchong, i st 
- Souchong, 2d 
• Congou 



Tea leaves 



58 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



CULTIVATION — ADULTERATION 



COFFEE-PRODUCTION 



Coffee is the berry of a tropical tree native in Abyssinia but 
now widely cultivated in tropical regions. Its leaves are ever- 
green, its blossoms white, its berries dark and pulpy, contain- 
ing two seeds each. The seeds are the coffee-beans. The 
tree blooms two thirds of the year. The ripe fruit is gathered 
three times, dried, and the seeds machine-freed. The bean is 
roasted to develop flavor and lessen tannin ; this also decreases 
caffeine. Roasted beans are brittle and easily ground. 

Varieties of coffee may come from different. localities, though 
mixtures even so named often are but different berries of the 
same plant. This is said to be true of Mocha and Java as bought. 
Brazil supplies three fourths of the coffee used here. Some 
comes from Porto Rico, Maracaibo, Ceylon, Mocha, Java. 

Unground coffee is not as easily adulterated as ground. 
Some artificial berries have been made, but to-day purchasing 
coffee unground is thought to avoid adulteration. Into coffee 
the French often introduce chicory for its flavor. Elsewhere 
this may be used because cheaper than coffee. Chicory is the 
most common coffee-adulterant. Cereals, beans, peas roasted, 
also hulls and charcoal are other materials so used. When 
ground coffee is shaken in cold water, pure coffee floats, adul- 
terants usually sink and may discolor the water. Tea suffers 
less adulteration than coffee. Reselling of steeped leaves 
mixed with fresh is the commonest 
Mocha <Z^ g^ ^ deception practiced in it. 

Cereal coffees are substitutes that 
Java llpl fija& |iS| a ^ m t0 av .°id tannin and the stimula- 
tion of coffee while furnishing a bev- 

Rio a A a erage of more or less P alatabilit y- 

^W i&P HP This j s sometimes secured by adding 
Coffee-beans some coffee or its flavoring matter. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 59 



COCOA 



GROWTH 



Tropical vegetation yields another beverage in cocoa. The 
cacao tree ( Theobroma cacao) is a native of Central America. 
This tree has several distinctive characteristics. It blossoms 
throughout the year and bears fruit of all ages which succes- 
sively ripens, as has been noted of other tropical plant foods. 
The trees grow from seeds, but do not bear until the fifth or 
sixth year. Then a myriad of red blossoms make a large 
yellow fruit (nearly I ft. long and l ft. wide). This is pulpy 
and contains from two to four dozen seeds. These are the 
cocoa-beans. The fruit grows on the trunks of the trees and 
on the main limbs, never at the end of the small branches, 
that could not sustain its weight. 

The tree itself requires particular conditions to thrive. It 
needs air in plenty and light, but must be protected from the 
excessive direct rays of the sun. On cocoa plantations the tree 
is sheltered by planting taller shade trees about it. The tree 
itself is 14-30 ft. high and \-\ ft. through. Fertile, protected 
valleys are sought for its cultivation. It grows wild under the 
conditions propitious for its development. Though it requires 
other trees to shade it, it is the tree that itself is used to 
support the vanilla plant that is a parasite, so grows only on 
trees, though this takes its sustenance from the air through its 
aerial roots. Cocoa and vanilla are thus cultivated together. 

The history of the use of plants for food often reveals 
the lack of earlier communication 
between countries and the slow in- 
terchange of their products and cus- 
toms. Cocoa was found in Mexico 
by Cortes, but it came to us by pass- 
ing to Spain, thence to Italy, France, 
England, and back to America. Branch of cocoa-tree 




60 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



MANUFACTURE 



CHOCOLATE 



Chocolate was not used in England until the beginning of 
the eighteenth century, though it was introduced into Spain 
early in the sixteenth. America began the preparation of 
chocolate in the latter half of the eighteenth century. 

The ripened fruit is gathered from the tree, opened, and the 
seeds removed. These are sun-dried at once or subjected to 
a fermentation process (" sweating "), then dried. The flavor 
is improved by the fermentation and the bitterness is decreased. 
The roasting of the cocoa-beans is preceded by separating 
from them foreign particles and sorting the beans according to 
size. Thus flavor is further developed, and the tannin present 
is converted into cocoa-red that colors cocoa characteristically. 
The roasted beans then have their hulls cracked off and re- 
moved by winnowing. The beans themselves are next crushed 
and the germ removed. The cracked beans known as cocoa- 
nibs are prepared for a beverage and other uses noted below. 
The hulls are sometimes boiled for a beverage, but are more 
usually employed in adulterating cocoa or for cattle-food. 

Chocolate is the product of grinding the cocoa-nibs (usually 
several times). This is then semiliquid and can be run into 
molds. It hardens as it cools and is unsweetened chocolate. 
When sugar or any flavoring, as vanilla or cinnamon, is added 
to chocolate, it is introduced while chocolate is in the paste 
state. The fat present (50%) can be partly removed under 
pressure. Cocoa butter is the fat so 
removed. Its use is largely for medical 
purposes and confectionery coatings. 
Cocoa in its purest form is choco- 
late with some fat removed. This 
makes its powdered form possible. 
^Cocoa-beans Starch is added to keep it so. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 61 




COCOA — CHOCOLATE 



COMPOSITION — USE 



The use of cocoa has greatly increased of late years. This 
is usually attributed to its food value, that is real, though prob- 
ably not all that is always claimed for it. 

Cocoa contains theobromine (similar to caffeine or theine), 
also a little caffeine. But its stimulating effect is slight, far less 
than that of coffee or tea, as is also its retardation of diges- 
tion, since the tannin in raw cocoa-beans is transformed in 
roasting. Cocoa as a beverage has much less fat than the bean. 
This varies with different preparations. When pure cocoa is 
not digestible, it is due to the fat. Not every one can digest 
fat easily. Otherwise cocoa is very digestible. 

Though cocoa has the nourishing food-constituents, these 
are insufficient for much nutriment in the quantity in which 
it is used as a beverage. Made with milk there is more. Cocoa 
is not, however, a negligible factor in the diet, as are tea and 
coffee in respect to nourishment. The fact that cocoa as mar- 
keted contains starch makes it important that it be cooked. 

BREAKFAST COCOAS (Selected from Olsen's « Pure Foods ") 



Ash 


Water 


Theobromine 


%IN 


Fat 


Starch, etc. 


Protein 


5-54 


4.27 


I.02 


Huyler 




34-04 


18.7 


17.29 


4-7 


6.02 


I.28 


Baker 




^9-3 


14.66 


19-53 


8.19 


4-53 


.69 


Van Houten 


29.78 


29.96 


I7-03 


5-43 


3-2 


— 


Lowney 




-3- 


17.68 


24.88 


Chocolate 






In Different Forms 


Ash 


Water 


Caf- 
feine 


Theo- 
bromine 


%IN 


Fat 


Sugar 


Starch 


Fiber 


Protein 


3- 


3- 


•4 


I. 


Pure 


SO. 








3- 


12. 


1. 


10.6 


.1 


•4 


Sweet 


16.7 


57- 


9.2 


I. 


4- 


•3 


10.6 


.04 


.1 


Creams 


5- 


79-4 


2.76 


•3 


1.2 



It is the pure chocolate that is supposed to be used in cook- 
ing ; but often it is mixed with sugar and cocoa butter. 



62 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMPARISON — SUMMARY 



BEVERAGES — NUTRIMENT 



Food signifies sustenance. Beverages stimulate principally. 
The refreshment they afford may have purpose in adult life 
when those are used that neither excite nor depress. Such 
effects injure health. The nutritive value of food-substances 
needs to be estimated for foods as consumed. Beverages con- 
tain much water. This diminishes the proportions of their 
constituents. Since only the liquid is used, only what is 
soluble in water is consumed. Protein in tea is insoluble. 



Tea — 


Coffee — Cocoa — 


Chocolate 






As produced 




Protein 


%IN 


Fiber 


Sugar 


Fat 


Ash 


Tannin 


Theine 


(Insol- 
uble) 


37-33 
3743 
33.9 


Tea (original) 
Tea (green) 
Tea (black) 


IO.44 
IO.06 
IO.07 






4-97 
4.92 

4-93 


12.91 

IO.64 

4.89 


3-3 
3-2 
3-3 


Water 














Tannin and 

Caffeine 


11.23 
1. 15 


12.07 
13.98 


Coffee (raw) 
Coffee (roasted) 




.66 

8.55 


12.27 
14.48 


3-92 
4-75 




1. 21 
1.24 










Starch 








Theo- 
bromine 


3- 

3-09 


12. 


Cocoa (nibs) 

Cocoa 

Chocolate 


2 -5 

5.02 
2.63 


27-5 


5°- 

32.52 

49.81 


3-5 
4.2 
3.08 


•5 


I. 



Beverages as used (i pint water to be added to quantities indicated) 


Water 


Protein 


%IN 


Carbohydrates 

(sugar, sugar-fiber) 


Fat 


Tannin 


Caffeine 


99-5 


.2 


Tea [\ oz.) 


.6 




(See statement, 


98.9 


.2 


Coffee (1 oz.) 


•7 




P- 55) 


99-5 


.2 


Cereal (-§- oz.) 


1.4 




(No tannin 


99-5 


.2 


Parched corn ( 1 .6 oz. ) 


•5 




nor caffeine) 


99-7 


•3 


Oatmeal water (1 oz.) 
Cocoa {\ oz.) 


•3 






97.1 


.6 


With water 


1.1 


•9 




84.5 


3-8 


With milk 


6. 


4-7 




9°-5 


3-4 


Milk (skimmed) 


5- 1 


•3 





(Arranged from Snyder's " Human Foods") 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



63 



SUGARS 



SOURCE — KINDS 



Sugar is another product of vegetation. It is consumed 
in various forms in large quantities. The reported sugar- 
consumption in 1895 gives for England 86 lb. per capita, and 
for the United States 64 lb., and 80 lb. in 191 2. 

Sugar-cane until recently yielded the sugar consumed as 
food. Now sugar-beets supply an increasing proportion of 
that used. Substitute sirups are also taking the place of 
cane-sugar in manufactured foods. 

Production of sugar from sugar-cane consists in cutting 
and pressing the cane to secure the juice. This is purified 
and evaporated. The sugar then crystallizes. Such sugar is 
brown. The sirup left is molasses. When sugar is made 
from beets, the sugar is dissolved from the beets after they 
have been chopped fine. 

Refining raw sugar is accomplished by a series of processes 
that remove all impurities, reevaporate it and recrystallize the 
sugar in purer form. Slight difference in degree of coarseness 
of sugar is produced in the crystallizing of the grains. But 
powdered sugar is ground usually from that broken in cutting 
loaf sugar for table use. Its seeming lack of sweetness is due 
to its fine division, not necessarily to adulteration. Sugar that 
entirely dissolves is probably pure. If starch were added it 
would remain insoluble. 

Glucose is a sirup commercially produced from corn and 
used as a sugar substitute in made-foods, especially candies. It 
should be wholesome if pure and carefully made. Glucose 
when pure is a predigested food, that is, is ready for assimi- 
lation as consumed. But all digestive processes performed for 
the body outside of it do not always aid it, even though it is 
not known exactly why they do not. The body to be properly 
fed seems to need to do its own work of digestion. 

64 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 






SUMMARY 



VEGETATION 



Vegetation includes all plant life and is the source of all 
plant foods. Tropical vegetation shows characteristics that 
distinguish it from that of the temperate zone. Tropical growth 
is luxuriant ; the fruit is abundant and usually fragrant and 
luscious ; the crops are many a year ; all ages grow together 
and ripen successively. The inclusion of tropical products in 
the diet of colder climates is not simply bringing foods at sea- 
sons that they would not grow in any but a tropical region, but 
is bringing foods of ever new growth almost continuously. The 
tropics also supply some foods that other regions cannot ; for 
example, many spices. 

Needs of vegetation itself are those common to life, for vege- 
tation is living. It is also working. For living it needs itself 
water, air, and food suited to its uses. Plants make in them- 
selves from their own foods, that would not nourish animals 
and humankind, substances that serve as human foods and for 
animals too. This is only part, though a most significant part, 
of the work that vegetation does through its life-activity. 

Supplies of food from vegetation are most varied, as they 
include grains, vegetables, fruits, spices, nuts, leaves and seeds 
serving as beverages, and seeds producing oil. These include 
all food-constituents needed for the life of humankind, though 
an exclusively vegetable diet is not advised generally by food- 
scientists. It is, however, upon vegetation alone that reliance 
must be placed for starch, and mainly for sugar too. Protein 
and mineral matter it furnishes in common with animal life, 
and is beginning to rival animal life as a source for fats, since 
the consumption of vegetable oils is greatly increasing. 

Humanity not only uses vegetation for food and other living- 
needs but also learns much from it concerning nature's work- 
ings. Through this it ever finds new aid possible. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 65 



VALUE OF VEGETATION 



LIFE-NEEDS 



All living matter requires for life, food, air, water. Thirst, 
hunger, suffocation, result from lack of water, food, air. Life 
ceases when living things are deprived of air. Lack of water 
can be endured less long than lack of food. But the greater 
effort required to secure food makes it seem the most impor- 
tant need of life. Air, water, food, are all essential ; air con- 
tinuously, water and food, periodically. 

Vegetation supplies plant food and purifies the atmosphere. 
Its production of plant food is no less significant to human 
life than its effect upon the air-supply. Plants live as do 
animals and humanity. All breathe alike in that they take in 
air and give out carbon dioxid (C0 2 ) both day and night. 
This process of living is called respiration. 

In the other processes of living, plants and animals differ 
more. But in the internal activities of physical living, animals 
and humanity are very similar, though their food differs in 
kind. The food of plants differs from that of both. Plants 
themselves become the food of both animals and humankind. 
Foods are of use to living organisms only as they unite with 
the oxygen of the air breathed in during respiration. This 
combining of food and oxygen is part of the process of nutri- 
tion ; that is, the physiological utilization of food. 

Green plants use as food the carbon of the carbon dioxid 
that is breathed out by all living things. The green coloring 
matter of plants seen in leaves is called chlorophyll. Through 
the agency of chlorophyll green plants have the power in the 
presence of sunlight to break up carbon dioxid, use the carbon 
as food, and return the oxygen it contains to the atmosphere. 
But for this function of green vegetation the carbon dioxide 
breathed out by the living of humanity, animals and plants 
would render the air unable to support life. 

66 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 






PLANT-CONSTRUCTION 



VALUE OF VEGETATION 



Carbon of carbon dioxid taken for food by plants not only 
purifies the atmosphere but is transformed from carbon that 
animals and humankind cannot use directly into carbohydrates 
in the plants which both animals and humankind need and se- 
cure in consuming plants. Oils in plants are similarly produced. 

Mineral matter plants obtain from the soil through their roots. 
They associate these in themselves with the other substances 
of which plants are constituted. It is thus the mineral salts 
are passed from inorganic (non-living) nature through organic 
(living) nature in plants to animals and humankind. Such 
salts are necessary for bone-building, also for such regulation 
of density of the liquids of the body as will insure their transfu- 
sion through body-tissues, which is the need in body-living. 

Though many of the salts used by the body can be produced 
in isolation from plant or other living substance, the body can- 
not make the same use of them when so made. The mineral 
salts of fruits are usable by the body and most serviceable to it 
as they are taken in association with organic matter. It is thus 
that they exist in vegetables and fruits, in which living plants 
have grown them into association with the organic substances. 

Drugs of the same chemical composition as such salts or 
any artificial preparations of these are not always so assuredly 
absorbed. What fruits naturally do when taken into the body 
to keep it in health cannot be artificially effected. Why this 
is so is not fully known, but the fact is increasingly recog- 
nized and is one cause for increased fruit-consumption. 

Protein, the food-constituent that carries nitrogen — an ele- 
ment essential to the life of every living cell — from nature 
to animals and humankind is built up by plants from com- 
pounds plants take from the soil in their living. Leguminous 
plants do likewise with free nitrogen from the atmosphere. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 67 



PLANT-ACTIVITY 



EFFECTS 



The effects of plant-activity in the working of nature are 
significant to all life upon the earth. Plant-activity effects 
production of plant foods in which simple substances are 
naturally made into the more complex that alone can nourish 
the higher forms of physical life, namely, animals and human- 
kind. It effects purification of the atmosphere by removing 
carbon dioxid from it and returning to it the oxygen from the 
decomposed carbon dioxid and by taking from the atmosphere 
some of its free nitrogen through the agency of leguminous 
plants and transforming this into nitrogen compounds of the 
soil. It also effects construction of the plant protein from the 
nitrogen compounds of the soil and carries the mineral salts 
from the soil into association with organic matter, thus bring- 
ing these salts into usable form in human plant-foods. These 
effects of plant-activity alter favorably the air breathed and 
construct substances usable as human foods. 

Another group of its effects is scarcely less important. As 
vegetation grows it needs moisture. Where forests have been 
depleted, the water they would use passes to the streams, that 
may then overflow, damaging the life they reach instead of 
serving to increase its security by fertility and an abundant 
water-supply. Forests modify all wind-effects and break the 
lower currents of air so that their control is largely determined 
by whether there are forests standing as a protection to life. 

The life-activity of green vegetation in adding oxygen to 
the air-supply makes life-invigorating the atmosphere of forest 
regions, particularly those that are evergreen. The currents 
of air by movement pass some of this fresher air to congested 
localities. Parks, trees, and gardens in town serve the same 
purpose there as the forests do in the country at large. Plants 
in rooms perform a like service during sunlight. 

68 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



DANGERS 



BACTERIAL LIFE 



Since bacteria have been known as the cause of some dis- 
eases, they have been commonly regarded as foes to human life. 
So they may prove to be if of disease-producing types or even 
if not, when they are consumed in large quantities. This is inva- 
riably the case when underprotected or overkept food is eaten, 
whether it be salads, milk, ice-cream, preserved food, water, or 
any easily contaminated substance that humanity consumes. 
But some bacteria there are which play a friendly role in nature 
by helping in production of foods that nourish humanity. 

Dangers from bacteria can be averted when understood. 
Dust is bacteria-laden, hence the necessity of protecting from 
dust everything to be eaten, worn, or otherwise used by hu- 
manity. If the air breathed carries disease-germs it may cause 
disease. The air-supply needs therefore to be pure, free not 
only from excess of carbon dioxid but also from such bacteria 
as can harm humankind. Tuberculosis is spread by dried dust 
carrying the germs cast off by those diseased. Bacteria thrive 
in the soil many inches deep. The plant food-supply needs 
therefore to be soil-free as used. Water in passing through 
soil may take with it what soil contains. If sewage drains 
through to the water-supply, the water may contain the bacteria 
that may infest the intestinal tract. That of typhoid fever is 
one of these, so is borne by water to humanity. Only thoroughly 
boiled, filtered, or purified water is assuredly germ-free. 

Some chemicals prevent bacterial growth, but they would 
usually also render a substance unfit for use as a food. Heat 
fortunately is also a destroyer of bacterial vitality. This makes 
cooking of importance in obtaining germ-free food. But all 
bacteria are not destroyed by the temperatures non-destructive 
to food, and some grow without air, so preserved foods can 
contain many bacteria, though freed of putrefactive bacteria. 

PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 69 



BACTERIAL ACTIVITY 



SIGNIFICANCE 



It is only in modern times that bacteria have themselves 
become known, though the effects of their living have been 
experienced probably always and recognized more or less since 
ancient times. Bacteria abound everywhere in air, w r ater, soil. 
Wherever they are they are doing something. They break 
down the substances they live on. Human beings are the host 
upon which disease-bacteria subsist. 

The work of non-disease bacteria in nature is real and of 
unique value, as they have a necessary part in life, not shared 
by other organisms or done by other agencies. Bacteria are liv- 
ing organisms, so require the conditions necessary to their life 
in order to live ; nitrogenous food, moisture and usually air. 

Bacteria utilize the nitrogenous substances that are the 
waste-products of the living of higher forms of physical life 
and that are not directly usable by vegetation. These they 
break up into simpler nitrogen compounds that plants can use. 
They also free some nitrogen to the atmosphere. But for such 
bacterial activity, nitrogen in the forms needed everywhere in 
life would not be available. 

Until the microscope was invented bacteria were not seen. 
They are such minute organisms that they have to be enlarged 
(some, 1 200 times) to be visible to the human eye. Though 
not wholly like non-microscopic plants, they have more plant 
characteristics than animal. . 

The use of bacteria to both \'^\^/>7\ 

plants and animals is their 's^7J>* ^I^^A^-ifi 

life-activity. This makes the «£^ ^^yftS^ 

products of living of animals ^f\l \7UfeO 

of use to plants that in turn '«iviV^ 

themselves make food for ani- Bacteria in drop of milk ; multi- 
mals and humankind. plication in 12 Jirs. (After Russell) 

70 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 






DEVELOPMENT-FORMS 



fct~<n 



LIVING ORGANISMS 



When conditions are not favorable to bacterial life some 
bacteria die, others pass into resistant, resting forms. These 
are called spores. They are not easily destroyed, therefore 
may remain alive in water or food or air even after subjected 
to great heat. When favorable conditions for bacterial growth 
are reestablished, spores become active, change back into the 
growing form of bacteria, and these then multiply. 

Seeds of plants are not like bacterial spores. The two 
should not be confused. Seeds are more than alive forms 
that return to a growing state under reinstatement of favorable 
conditions. Seeds bring forth new plants. Spores are bac- 
teria that remain alive when deprived of what they need to 
grow. Spores form under conditions of destitution ; seeds 
under conditions favorable to growth. Bacteria reproduce in 
general by the subdividing of the bacterial organism itself and 
the repeated redividing of the subdivisions. See diagrams 
below. 

Humankind, animals, plants, bacteria, are all living organ- 
isms. Their processes of living, growing, reproducing, and 
readjusting themselves differ somewhat, but they all interwork. 
Organisms are forms of life that, in addition to existing, 
are somewhat active and change somewhat. They live, grow, 
reproduce their kind similarly, but tend to change slightly in 
response to whatever differs in their action. It is living and 
^^ /— \ ^-n^-x s~^\ -f~*\ working that provides food to 
(^_J Q ) \^^_J K_J \^J sustain life. It is through re- 
production that generation fol- 
lows generation, and that the 
species or race lives on. It is 
through a new response in ac- 
Reproduction by fission. (After Conn) tion that any advance occurs. 

CYCLE OF NATURE 71 





: ] c jl 


) 










e__j 




( 


i ) 





PRODUCTS OF LIVING 



FUNCTIONS m LIFE 



The products of living of different types of organisms are 
alike in some respects and unlike in others. Complex prod- 
ucts cast off by one organism as of no further use for it are 
broken down into simpler forms by some other organism, and 
by another are built up anew into a newly combined complex 
substance usable by still others. Waste products of living 
are usually broken down. What is consumed is built up into 
something new or used up in something done as work. 

In their functions, that is, what they do in nature through 
their living, organisms of different types are less alike even 
than in their products of living. Their functions are therefore 
very important. If one fails in what it alone can do, others or 
all are hindered and delayed, or may even be destroyed. 

Bacteria carry nitrogen from the complex forms of nitrog- 
enous waste products of animal life to the simpler compounds 
serving plants as food. 

Plants build nitrogen into protein — the building food of 
animal life — by combining it with other elements. Plants de- 
compose the carbon dioxid of expired air and so unite the 
carbon with hydrogen and oxygen as to construct sugar, 
starch, cellulose, oil, — carbohydrates and fats, — the heat- 
energy foods of animal life. Plants also carry the salts of 
minerals into combination with organic substances, which is 
the only form in which they are thoroughly assimilable by 
animal organisms. Mineral salts are the regulating food- 
elements for animal life ; they build somewhat, too. 

Animals make no really new kind of food-substance. They 
do, however, so transform some substances as to make them 
more readily or fully digested by humankind. Vegetable pro- 
tein is incased in cellulose (woody fiber). This makes it less 
fully available for use than animal protein. 

72 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



ELEMENTS IN FOOD 



ADVANCEMENT OF LIFE 



The work of food-production as a process of nature is 
progressive, but moves ever in an interworking cycle that 
conserves all products of living as well as constructs all used 
for food. In general function in nature bacteria decompose, 
plants construct, animals transform. Human beings give off 
carbon dioxid that plants use and nitrogenous waste that bac- 
teria use. But in these nothing new is contributed, as they are 
also the products of living of all animal life. 

The part humanity uniquely performs in food-production 
is mainly mental in the practical and scientific conduct of liv- 
ing. Human work enters into food-cultivation, care, selection, 
preparation for humankind, animals, plants, bacteria. Be- 
cause of humanity's greater physical dexterity and elasticity in 
developing new powers, it is humanity that learns how nature 
interworks and can be worked together so as to advance race- 
life and extend natural resources and their utilization. 

The foods of bacteria, plants, animals, humankind, which in 
themselves differ, contain the same chemical elements vari- 
ously combined and in varying quantities. The chief of these 
are nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. There are many 
others of great importance too, though used in much smaller 
amounts. Such are calcium, sodium, potassium, sulphur, 
phosphorus. What these do as substances alone is different 
from what they do when combined. Different combinations 
also act differently. How these elements are brought together 
determines the constitution of the foods or organisms they 
compose. Air, sunlight, soil, water, have part in effecting 
these combinations. Plants need sunlight to get carbon from 
carbon dioxid ; bacteria leave the nitrogen compounds in the 
soil ; plants find them there ; water aids in the transfusion of 
food as food is being transformed for assimilation in the body. 

CYCLE OF NATURE 73 



FOOD-CYCLE 



BACTERIA — PLANTS —ANIMALS — HUMANKIND 



Take from Nature Give to Nature 

Air, water, food (vegetable and animal) Humankind Carbon dioxid and nitrogenous 

waste products 



Air, water, food (vegetable) 



Animals 



Air, water, carbon, nitrogen and 

^ _ ' Ajr 



Plants 



compounds, and min eral salts 



Air, water, nitrogenous waste products 

t 



Bacteria 



Carbon dioxid and nitrogenous 
waste products, and them- 
selves as human food 
Carbon dioxid and themselves 
as animal and human food 
Nitrogen and nitrogen com- 
pounds 



Carbon passes through the atmosphere to plants ; nitrogen 

(generally) through the soil. 
Oxygen unites with food in chemical action from which heat 

evolves. This is the source of body-energy and heat. 
Find on diagram below as many of above facts as possible. 

[nimal Life^ 



Starch, Sug"ar, Cellulose 

Protein ; fat (oils), 

Mineral Salts 



Plant, 



Waste products of living 

Carbon dioxid and 
Nitrogenous Substances 




Bacterial Life 



Nitrogen and 
Nitrogen Compounds 



Atmosphere 
Soil- 



74 



FOOD-CYCLE OF NATURE 



VEGETABLE CELLS PLANT-STRUCTURE 

CELLULOSE AND STARCH IN PLANT CELLS 






Plant cell 

Cellular structure 
(After Konig) 



Potato 

Transverse section. (After 
Cowden and Bussard) 



Potato starch in 
cellular cells 
(After Konig) 



Cut cross-sections of vegetables and fruits, as beet, parsnip, 
onion, cucumber, tomato, orange, lemon. 

Draw the lines that are visible. See thin sections under 
microscope whenever possible. 

Look at cross-sections of plant stems and of woods. 



PEA CELLS 




SPIROGYRA 

^4— chlorophyll 
* %Jf^%0 A-cell-wall 

H^ Ves^/ H — clear body of cell 




Chlorophyll : Green coloring matter 
vegetation 

(After Green) 



DEVELOPING VEGETABLE CELLS 




Very young Older cells Adult vegetable cells 

(p, protoplasm ; n, nucleus ; v, vacuole ; u>, cell-wall — much magnified) 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



75 



STARCH GRAINS 



IN SEEDS 




STARCH 



QQ 



3$ 






6 






Com 



Wheat 



fit %IlCsf?,^* ? 

Barley 




Oats 



Starch in Vegetable Foods 





Of 




Rice 


794 


2 -5 


Melons 


Rye Flour 


78.7 


6.2 


Cabbages 


Buckwheat Flour 


77.6 


6.9 


Turnips 


Wheat Flour 


75- 6 


10. 1 


Carrots 


Graham Flour 


71.8 


M-3 


Apples 


Corn Meal 


7 r - 


16.3 


Pears 


Oatmeal 


68.1 


21.3 


Potatoes 


Beans 


574 


21. 1 


Sweet Potatoes 


Wheat Bread 


55-5 


2 3-3 


Bananas 



(From Atwater's Analyses) 

76 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



IN 1912-1913 



SOME WORLD CROPS 



In 1913 

Wheat. . . 250,133,333 bushels 12% less than in 191 2 

In Argentina, Australia, New Zealand 

Rice .... 82,544,000,000 pounds Slightly less than in 1912 
In Spain, Italy, United States, India, 
Japan, Egypt 

Sugar . . . 8,960,000 short tons 2.3% more than in 191 2 

In Russia, Roumania, Germany, Australia, 
Belgium, Denmark, France, Hun- 
gary, Italy, Netherlands, Switzer- 
land, United States 

Corn. . . . 10,260,000 acres 8.4% more than in 1912 

In Argentina 

Oats .... 87,500,000 bushels 33.1% /m than in 19 12 

In Argentina, New Zealand 

Flax .... 2,723,000 acres 21.2% less than in 1912 

In India 

(Report to the United States Department of Agriculture from the International Institute of 
Agriculture at Rome, Italy) 

Make a comparative table of the above products for 19 12 

and 1913. 
Which countries produced less of these in 191 3 than in 191 2 ? 




Ceres 
PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 77 



CROPS AND LAND DISTRIBUTION UNITED STATES IN 1909-1910 

VALUE OF ALL CROPS IN 1909 CROPS; BY STATES 




(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 
LAND AREA 



IMPROVED LAND 





In 1899 ^ n J 9°9 

)ISTRIBUTION OF ALL CROPS, 1909 




78 



Other crops 

Other cereals 

FOOD—W 



U.S.A. — 1909 

New England 



DISTRIBUTION OF ALL CROPS 

N. E. Central N. W. Central 




(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 19 10) 
Other crops §§|§||) I Other cereals 

Compare with maps on pp. 18, 19, 49. 

Which divisions have the same chief products ? 

Write a list of all the products named above. After each 

product write the divisions producing it, in the order of 

the quantity produced. 



PLANT LIFE AND PLANT FOODS 



79 



FOOD SUPPLY — DIET FORMATION 

Nature is the source of the Food Supply. 
The Farm is the center of Food- Production. 

Humankind supplies the workers. 
Humanity is the consumer. 

What is needed for nourishment should be 
cultivated, marketed, selected, consumed. 

Plant foods will sustain life. Many digest 

slowly. 
Animal foods digest more fully but are not 

serviceable alone. 

The value of plants and animals as Human 
Food is increased by Plant and Animal 
Food being used together. 

Food repairs the body, supplies energy for 
activity, and body-heat. 




American Oyster Fleet 
80 



ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 

Animal Food in Living — Industry — Commerce 82 p 

Animal Food — Expense — Availability 8 3 

Animal Life — Needs — Effects of Living 84-5 

Meats : Beef, Veal, Mutton, Lamb, Pork, Bacon 86-7 

Meat Cutting — General Cuts — Carving Meat 88-9 

Animal Diagrams : Skeleton — Muscles — Cuts 90-3 

Meat Composition — Characteristics as purchased 94-5 

Cooking Meat : Methods — Effects — Fibers 96-9 

Small Animals : Chicken — Game — Fish 100-1 

Shell-fish — Fish in Season — Fish Food 102-3 

Eggs : Composition — Cooking — Eggs as Food 104-5 
Preservation — Quality — Test — Use — Production 106-9 
Milk Supply — Composition — Use — Milk as Food 1 10-1 

Digestibility — Availability — Characteristics 1 12-5 

Forms of Milk — Changes in Milk 116-7 

Preservation — Protection — Test — Quality 1 1 8-9 

Butter — Dairy- Products — Cheese 1 20- 1 

Maps on Distribution of Food- and Work- Animals 122-5 

Summary on Animal Foods in the Diet 126 



ifi! Aii 






/ III 




French Oyster Fleet 
81 



ANIMAL FOOD IN LIVING 



INDUSTRY — COMMERCE 



Animal foods are expensive and contain much refuse. 
Their extractives tend to overstimulate. 

Protein, fat, mineral matter, water are the constituents of 

animal food. 
Excess of protein food is a health-menace. 

Animal health and sanitary environment for animals are the 
necessary forerunners of wholesomeness of animal food. 




Veal ^ Lamb 

Chicago is the meat center of the United States. 

The workers employed number 40,000 ; 200,000 form the 

packing population ; 1 200 farmers come daily to the 

stockyards with cattle, sheep, hogs. 
Live stock worth over $1,000,000 are received every day. 

1912 1860 

2,650,000 Cattle 42,000 

500,000 Calves 

6,000,000 Sheep 

8,000,000 Hogs 00,000 

$390,000,000 worth of live stock is sold yearly at the Chicago yards. 
$300,000,000 of this value is raw material. 
$90,000,000 is labor. 

$300,000,000 capitalization covers the Chicago plants and their plants 
in other American and foreign cities. 

(Data used from Report of Chicago Association of Commerce.) 



82 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




EXPENSE — AVAILABILITY -y7F\ ANIMAL FOOD 



Animals used for food range from 3 to 8 years of age. 
(Steer from 4 to 5 years gives the best beef.) The time, care, 
food that animals require and the difficulty of the preservation 
of meat make it essentially a more expensive food than those 
that take less time, attention, care, and expenditure to pro- 
duce. In general, food from the vegetable kingdom costs less 
than from the animal. The vegetable kingdom provides the 
food for the animal. It is, however, the less expensive foods 
from the vegetable kingdom which are used as foods by 
animals, that in turn become food for humankind. 

Animals, in being more subject to disease than plants, do 
not supply so large a proportion of food from those produced 
for food. To this must be added the further facts that all of the 
animal is not edible (about \ is not) and all parts do not provide 
equally desirable food. The fore quarters of beef, which are 
inferior as food to the hind quarters, weigh 1 more than the 
hind quarters. Together these facts make meat expensive, 
especially the more tender parts. Conditions of commerce still 
further affect the cost of such foods in very appreciable ways. 

Animal food has worked over in it the constituents of the 
plants animals eat. These thus become available as human 
food. The edible portions of animal food are more fully 
digestible than plant foods edible for humankind. Ninety-five 
per cent of animal protein is digested ; only 85 % of vegetable. 
This is due more to the arrangement of the latter within vege- 
table fiber than to the chemical difference in plant and animal 
protein. This, and the fact that animal food contains more 
protein, makes the excess of such protein in human diet more 
possible and probable from meat than vegetables. In this re- 
spect animal food is concentrated food. This makes little of it 
advisable. Expense makes but little of it generally available. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 83 




ANIMAL LIFE -wN NEEDS — QUALITY 



Animals live ; they need provisions for life — air, water, food. 
All animals need these. All do not, however, eat the same 
food. Science has studied the food-needs of work-animals and 
food-animals, also the conditions that foster the effectiveness 
of each ; these differ. Animals strengthened for work and 
toughened by it and exposure are thereby rendered undesirable 
for food. 

Work-animals need health. But for food-animals health 
is indispensable. Ill animals, even if not diseased in ways to 
cause the same disease in persons, are unfit food. Human 
health cannot be promoted by diseased food of any kind. 
Human health is the purpose of human food. Wholesome- 
ness of animals themselves, of their environment, of those 
that care for them, market, and prepare them, will alone 
produce wholesome food and physical wholesomeness through 
food. 

Food-animals that have died, instead of being killed while 
in health, are unfit food, for death means that something un- 
favorable to living interfered with the life of such animals. 
Only tissue that could live is fit food for living humanity. 
Animals in health, killed and preserved in a state of sound- 
ness without preservatives destructive to their purpose as 
human food, furnish health-giving animal tissue as meats. 

Products of animal life also serve as human foods. Their 
quality is no less significant than that of meats. This is af- 
fected too by the processes of living of the animals producing 
dairy products. Milk is safe only from wholesome animals. 
It is clean only as it is kept so. The living conditions and 
food of animals determine the value of their products as human 
foods. Poor animals poorly cared for or poorly fed cannot 
but supply poor, if not dangerous, food. 

84 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



EFFECTS OF LIVING 



ANIMALS AS FOOD 



The body of animals is greatly affected by the living of 
the animals. The quality and quantity of their foods, the 
air they breathe, the water they drink, the work they do, the 
exposure they suffer, the health they have, the age they are, 
determine the desirability of animal foods, both as to nutri- 
tion and palatability. 

The flesh of some very young animals, as veal, is too com- 
pact in fiber to be readily separated, so is not easily reached by 
digestive juices. The lack of fatty tissue in these increases 
this compactness of fiber. In very old animals fiber is tough- 
ened through living, and fatty tissue has usually become ex- 
cessive. For these reasons, within the age-range of desirable 
animal food — 3 to 8 years — 4 to 5 gives the best food. The 
substances present in the young animal may also differ some- 
what from those of the older. 

The location of the different parts of the animal used for 
food determines their exposure and exercise. Neck and legs 
are toughened by their natural use. The interior of the ani- 
mal, especially under the backbone from the ribs toward the 
hind legs, is tender, because protected and little exercised. 
Outside cuts of meat are 2 J- times as tough as those from the 
interior. In young animals this difference is even greater. 

Since flavor is developed by exercise of muscle, and tender- 
ness by lack of it, the choice of parts even within the same 
animal is always somewhat of a choice between flavor and ten- 
derness. Differences of texture and flavor require different 
treatment to secure from all parts of animals the nourishment 
they can yield. Expensive, interior, tender cuts of meat have 
less flavor ; it is cooking that develops flavor in these. Inex- 
pensive, exterior, tough cuts have developed flavor through 
exercise, but cooking must be relied upon to make them tender. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 85 



KINDS OF MEAT 



BEEF — VEAL — MUTTON — LAMB 



Foods designated as meats are beef and veal, mutton and 
lamb, pork, fresh, canned, or otherwise preserved. But poultry, 
game, fish, eggs, and milk are also animal foods. 

Beef is about |- water. When there is little fat there is 
more water. Refuse is usually -J^ +. Protein ranges from 
i to 1 ; fat is about the same ; mineral matter is T ^-K Beef 
is less tender than mutton or pork but is most digestible, due 
probably somewhat to its extractives. 

Veal (young beef) contains, like all young animals, less fat 
than those more mature, so less than beef itself. (What is the 
food-constituent that increases with the growth of maturing of 
plants ? When old plants and animals are eaten, what is the 
function of the constituents that increase with maturity ?) 
Veal is less digestible than beef because of lack of flavor 
and compactness of fiber. 

Mutton contains less water than beef, therefore more fat. 
It averages 8% less water, 2% less protein, and J as much 
more fat. It thus supplies more energy. Mutton is generally 
considered as digestible as beef. But to those to whom fat is 
not readily digestible, or who do not like the flavor of mutton, 
it is less palatable. Its flavor is partly due to its fat and not 
wholly to its extractives, as in beef. Mutton contains fewer 
extractives than beef. This fact increases its value when ex- 
tractives must be avoided, as may be necessary in illness. 

Lamb (young mutton) varies from mutton as veal from beef. 
The leg has the least fat and most protein. The chuck re- 
verses this. (What has it ?) Lamb is more palatable than 
mutton, due to more delicate flavor, and more digestible, due 
to decreased fat. Extractives increase with age and exercise. 

Preserved meats when smoked lose no nutrients. Smoke 
not only preserves but adds flavor to meats. (See p. 149.) 

86 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



PORK — BACON — LARD 



KINDS OF MEAT 



Pork, as is generally known, contains more fat than other 
meats, so less water (10-20% less) and relatively less protein. 
Usually in pork, especially bacon, there is somewhat less waste 
than in other meats. Ham is lean pork ; bacon is fat pork. 

Bacon is about -|-fat. It contains twice as much fat as ham, 
three times as much as other meats, and only 1 less than but- 
ter. It is yV- to protein and f— § fat. Bacon is most digesti- 
ble ; only butter and cream rival it in digestibility among fats. 

Lard is fat from pork. Leaf-lard is from the fat accumu- 
lated inside the lower back part of the animal-body. It is the 
best lard. Lard is combined with other fats in artificial lards. 

Prepared meats, as sausages and minced meats, are com- 
pounds of mixed, chopped meats of different kinds. They may 
contain as much protein and more fat than the meats naturally 
do. But their composition in this and all other respects de- 
pends upon the mixture. When any vegetable substances are 
added, this is expected to be noted on the label. 

Meats, fresh, preserved, or prepared, differ in use to the body 
according to their composition and condition. Difference in 
flavor is somewhat due to the food of the animal. This, as 
well as the general characteristics of meats, may therefore be 
somewhat controlled by the feeding during the early growth of 
the animal. Milk-fed chickens are more tender than others. 

When animals are killed their flesh is tender, soft, juicy. It 
immediately stiffens, toughens, hardens. This is called rigor 
mortis ; it passes. The flesh is then again soft and tender and 
flavor has developed. It is in this third condition that meat is 
usually eaten. But as this change is due to the onset of decom- 
position (in which lactic acid forms and softens the connective 
tissue, as would mild vinegar), meat is eaten more promptly after 
slaughtering wherever heat requires that it be not kept long. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 87 



MEAT CUTTING 



GENERAL CUTS 



In general, the animal is cut both lengthwise and crosswise, 
therefore into four quarters, two fore and two hind. The fore 
and hind quarters differ in some respects in very marked 
ways. Inspection of the diagrams (p. 90) and of meat itself 
shows this. The fact that the form of the skeleton of the ani- 
mal distributes the bones differently through the different parts 
of the animal, and the further fact that the muscles of the 
animal are so differently used in different parts, make the 
existing differences in the cuts and in their quality a natural 
consequence of these facts. Purchase and preparation of meat 
are both controlled by these differences in the cuts. 

Difference in cuts of meat and its significance should be 
understood. Such knowledge guides buying and directs cook- 
ing of meat. The flesh of animals above and toward the 
back is finer and firmer than that below and toward the front. 




Ham 



Pork 



Leg of lamb 
(see p. 99) 

Fore quarters (weigh in beef about 310 lb.) are cut into : 

Ribs, chuck, neck, shoulder, shank, brisket, plate, navel. (See p. 91.) 

Coarse, inferior, less desirable. Ribs are the best fore-quarter cuts. 

In general, fore quarters, except the ribs, are used in the main for stews 

and soups, canning and corning, chopped or mince meat. 
Hind quarters (weigh in beef about 268 lb.) are cut into : 
Loin, rump, round, flank, shank. (See p. 91.) 

Fine, firm, and with the ribs of the fore quarters are the best cuts of meat. 
In general, hind quarters are less fat and used as steaks, roasts, stews, soups. 
Fore quarters cost from 5 to 25+ cents a pound. Hind, from 12 to 40. 
(The quantity of each as well as the quality affects this range in price.) 
The chuck, plate, brisket, flank, keep less well than do other cuts. 



88 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS 



CARVING MEAT 



In Carving, the grain of the meat, that is, the way the 
fibers run, is the primary fact to be regarded. Short fibers 
are more tender than long ones, because short they are more 
fully exposed to the digestive juices. Cutting fibers across 
and masticating thoroughly increase digestibility of meat. 

Location of bones also requires attention, that the bones 
may be avoided and the meat loosened from them in carving. 
Hence the necessity of a general but clear idea of the rela- 
tion of the cuts of meat to the skeleton and the muscles. 

In all animals the bones and muscles are in similar positions 
and similar in character. The general large cuts of the animal 
for the market differ as in the diagrams on pp. 82, 88, 90. The 
special cuts of these into the small cuts for the household are 
similar. The steaks of beef become chops or cutlets, thus : 







Rib 



French 



Loin 



Round bone 



Blade 



Steaks from beef are the cuts relatively free from bones and of such tex- 
ture as to be palatable when cut comparatively thin (i"-i|") and 
cooked quickly, as in broiling or roasting. (See p. 92.) 

Roasts are larger quantities of the same cuts or ribs in beef ; in mutton 
and pork they are legs and shoulders. (See p. 93.) 

Turn the next page into a roll and look at cuts on pp. 92-93, with cuts 
on pp. 90-91. Where in the animal do you find these? 

See steaks, chops, cutlets, roasts of different kinds at home and in shops. 

Look in steaks for bones T s gf£ | T V O Round" 1 " and modifi- 
cations of these, also amount of fat. Draw the steaks. Name each. 
Then compare with book. 

Reread pp. 85-86, and inspect meat and muscles of animals (diagram, 
p. 90), then decide carving and indicate with lines on your drawings. 



ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 



89 



ANIMAL DIAGRAMS 
BEEF 



SKELETON — MUSCLES — CUTS 
SKELETON 




i — neck 4 — thick or hip sirloin b — cartilage 

2 — chuck ribs (6) 5a — top of rump c — shoulder blade 

3 — prime ribs (7) and loin 6a — aitchbone or rump piece d — cross ribs 



BEEF 



\ C , 



MUSCLES 




1 — head 2 — neck 6 — thick sirloin a — top of sirloin 

3 — chuck ribs and shoulder blade 7-8 — rump piece (in New York) b — flank 

4 — prime ribs (7) 8 — aitchbone c — plate 

5 — loin g — round 1 o — leg d — brisket 
(Redrawn from Maria Parloa's " Home Economics," by permission of The Century Co.) 



90 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



MARKET CUTS 

BEEF 



ANIMAL DIAGRAMS 

CUTS 




SIDE OF BEEF 




NEW YORK CUTS 



a — spine 

b — suet 

c — kidney 

d — tenderloin (thin) 

e — tenderloin (thick) 

/ — round (top or in- 
side) 

g — round (best part) 
sternum 
brisket (thick 
end) 

brisket (thin end) 
flank 




ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 



91 



CUTS OF MEAT 



STEAKS 



STEAK — CUTS 




Hip-bone steak Delmonico steak 

(Adaptec from Maria Parloa's " Home Economics," by permission of The Century Co.) 
92 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



ROASTS 



CUTS OF MEAT 




BONES — MUSCLES 




Shows changed position of thigh-bone 
when the hind quarter of the animal is 
hung ; i, the point where loin is sepa- 
rated from hip sirloin 



Shows changed position of muscles 

when hind quarter is hung ; i is the 

point where the loin is separated from 

the hip sirloin 



CARVING ROASTS 








Round of beef 
(Lines on roasts indicate carving) 




Roast ribs of beef Sirloin or porterhouse roast 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 93 




COMPOSITION OF MEAT -StTPN STUDY OF MEATS 



Meats contain, in common with vegetables, protein, fat, 
mineral matter, and water. They lack carbohydrates, the chief 
constituent of starchy vegetables. Meats contain more fat 
and protein than vegetables. It is for \Xs protein and fat that 
meat has nutritive significance in human diet. 

In vegetables, carbohydrates were found to include starch, 
sugar, cellulose. The action of any vegetable in the human 
system depends upon which of these forms of carbohydrates 
is present, or present in largest quantity. 

Protein also is complex. Albumen, gelatin, nitrogenous 
extractives, are present in protein. Though these are all ni- 
trogenous, they are differently composed and serve the body 
differently. Albumen builds tissue ; gelatin spares tissue, but 
does not build it ; extractives do neither — they stimulate. 
They have little, if any, nutritive value. By stimulating, how- 
ever, they cause a secretion of digestive juices, which promotes 
digestion, hence nutrition, when the stimulation is not exces- 
sive. The flavor of meat due to extractives increases palata- 
bility. Extracts of meat contain mainly extractives. 

Albumen is coagulated when meat is cooked. In boiling 
it rises on the water as brown particles. These are highly 
nutritious, therefore should not be skimmed off. The solidi- 
fying of the liquid in which meat has been boiled is due to 
the gelatin. When this is present in the diet it is used by the 
body and thus protects body-tissues. The body would consume 
itself in living if deprived of all protein food. Gelatin is a 
sparer of tissue instead of a builder. It is called a tissue- 
sparer. Veal is especially rich in gelatin. 

When would you choose mutton in preference to beef ? Why ? When 
not ? Why? In what respects does pork differ from beef and mutton? 
Compare young and old animals ; young and old vegetables. 

94 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



REFUSE — CHARACTERISTICS -fevrN MEATS AS PURCHASED 



The composition of meats is in general the same. The lo- 
cation of different parts largely determines not only the ten- 
derness but also the quantity of bone. Hence the imperative 
need to know in buying meat the character of different cuts 
and the tests of the quality of meat. Though cuts differ some- 
what in different animals, there is a general likeness in the 
form and structure of animals, therefore in the way they are 
cut. The cuts of beef are more complex, therefore include or 
suggest those of other animals. (See pp. 90-93.) 

The amount of bone, also of fat, affects the actual quantity 
of nutriment of any piece of meat, as it is lean meat that fur- 
nishes the protein for which meat is primarily valued as food. 
The bones and trimmings of meat are not, however, without 
food value. Bones are valuable for soup-stock. If bones and 
fat are paid for with meat, they should be obtained and used. 
When meat is trimmed, then weighed and the trimmings uti- 
lized in processes of wholesale manufacture, a general economy 
is practiced which should be encouraged in all communities. 

Cuts of meat which contain much bone and fat should be less 
expensive. The range of price of meat is large, also exceed- 
ingly varying. In general, 3-5 $ per pound is an average range 
for soup-meat, 25-40^ for steak, and sometimes ^1 or more 
a pound for the tenderloin when purchased alone. Though 
only approximate prices can be quoted (because so subject to 
unstaple trade conditions), the relative difference between 
prices varies less, because this depends upon the difference in 
the meat itself, which is practically a permanent difference. 

Texture of meat should be firm, but not long fibers, stringy, or dry. 
Fat should be apparent but not excessive, firm, and creamy white. 
Bones should not be exceedingly large. Co lor should be red, bright almost 
immediately upon cutting, though inclined to bluish red as cut. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 95 



COOKING OF MEAT "sSj METHODS 

As raw meat is found to be more digestible than cooked, 
the cooking of meat is clearly for other purposes. This also 
suggests that the rarer cooked meat is, probably the more di- 
gestible. For tender meats experiment confirms this expecta- 
tion. Cooked meat is, however, generally more palatable than 
uncooked. As 95% of it is digested when cooked, cooking 
is considered advisable. Cooking develops flavor ; it also de- 
stroys bacteria and any other parasites present. Overcooking 
is to be avoided, as this hardens fiber, making it indigestible. 

In vegetables, cellulose was found so to incase the nutrients 
as to need to be broken up in order to release these. In meats, 
connective tissue holds together the muscle fibers ; in it are 
embedded the fat particles. As cellulose was loosened and 
softened by heat, so connective tissue by means of heat loosens 
its hold upon the muscle fibers and the fat. The connective 
tissue itself becomes gelatin. (See pp. 94 and 98.) 

In young animals connective tissue is delicate and the 
muscle fibers short and tender. With age, exercise, expo- 
sure, both muscle fiber and connective tissue toughen and 
harden. They then require more prolonged cooking. When 
tender, heat acts quickly upon them. 
Tender meat is subjected to high temperature for a short time. 
Tough meat requires low temperature and prolonged cooking. Why? 

To retain nutrients in meat, dry heat is used. Large, thick 
cuts of meat are seared (juices and fat brown together quickly 
on outside). When the inside is thus incased it really cooks 
in the water of its own composition, rather than by dry heat 
as did the outside. The albumen that has coagulated on the 
outside prevents the further escape of the meat-juices. It is 
such cooking that makes meat most nutritious, unless it is 
very tough. Steaks are so cooked. 

96 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




EFFECTS -¥7r^ COOKING OF MEAT 



All meats as cooked lose some weight. This loss is, how- 
ever, principally water. This is caused by the hardening of 
fiber forcing out the water. (Fresh meat does not shrink as 
much as unsound, for meat as it undergoes decomposition 
grows liquid.) By boiling, about \ the weight is lost. Of this 
less than 5 % is of nutrients. By dry heat about \ is lost as 
water, while the loss in protein is very slight. Yet more of the 
nutrients actually become soluble by dry heat than during boil- 
ing. But these are not lost if gravies and sauces are made 
with the juices and drippings. Cooked meat is as a whole 
somewhat less soluble than uncooked. In so far as it is, it is 
decreased in nutriment, for food, to be used by the body, must 
be soluble in its digestive juices. 

Meat- juices obtained by pressing heated round steak are 
nearly 12% protein and extractives. The extractives are one 
half as much as the protein. But since no method of cooking 
brings out the nutrients to any great degree, they are mostly 
in the meat, even stew- and soup-meat. This should there- 
fore be considered a food of value, though it needs to be so 
prepared as to increase its palatability. Meat-powder is for 
this reason more nutritious than meat extracts. 

To extract nutrients meat is cut fine, soaked in cold water, 
and cooked at low temperature. Near the end of this process 
the temperature is raised to the boiling point for a short time 
to dissolve the connective tissue. High temperature hardens 
muscle fibers but is needed to dissolve connective tissue. Stews 
and soups are so made. (In retaining nutrients after searing, 
the temperature is lowered to prevent hardening of the fibers.) 
(See p. 98.) 

Building, sparing, stimulating effects are produced by 
meat foods. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 97 



ANIMAL LIFE 



MUSCLE STRUCTURE 

MUSCLE FIBERS IN MEAT 

Fiber- 



Connective 
tissue 




Fat 




In bundles 



[n fibrils 



Longitudinal section 



Transverse section 



(Reproduced from Maria Parloa's " Home Economics," by permission of The Century Co.) 

Compare Structure of Muscle Fibers 

with Plant Structure, p. 75. 
See arrangement of muscles in animals, 

pp. 90 and 93. 
Cut meat lengthwise and crosswise. 
Decide which is tougher as eaten. 
Note location of fat in fiber above. 
Note Fat-Globules in Milk, p. 114. 



FAT-GLOBULES 







Fat cells 



^Oo^O&O 

c??a°o^o o°-o 
Fat emulsified 



a, young cells beginning to store fat Fat is broken up thus into finely 

b, old cell filled with fat divided particles as it is digested 

(After Conn and Buddington) 



98 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



MUTTON — FOWL — FISH 

SHOULDER OF MUTTON 



CARVING CUTS 




Position of 
shoulder-bone 



Method of carving 
the under part 



CARVING FOWL 




Remove wing a-b 

Remove leg c-d 

Disjoint thigh at e 

Remove side-bone/^ 

Slice breast h-i 

Remove wish-bone k-j I 

Remove collar-bone under wing 

Open at m 

Disjoint at n 

{Letters on carving cuts throughout book indicate cutting in the order of the letters') 
CARVING FISH 






For small fish For fish steaks For large fish 

(Adapted from Maria Parloa's "Home Economics," by permission of The Century Co.) 
ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 99 



CHICKEN — GAME 



SMALL ANIMALS 



The large animals from which most marketed meats come 
belong to the animal family of mammals, whose young are 
milk-fed. The cow's milk has become an important human 
food. Besides these animals others are used for food, which 
are smaller : some domesticated, others wild ; some of land, 
others of air. The egg from which some of these spring also 
becomes human food. It contains what forms the animal and 
furnishes its food until it is capable of living on food supplied 
by nature, though provided through the care of the parent. 

Chicken is the most generally used of these smaller animals. 
It furnishes protein food that is delicate and digestible. It is 
relatively free from fat. As chickens grow old they grow fat 
and tough, necks long and flesh purplish. The character- 
istics desirable in chickens used for food are : 

Breast plump with breast-bo?ie pliable (not broken) ; flesh evenly compact 
(neither hard nor flabby) ; skin moist, smooth, clear (yellow or white) ; 
pin feathers show youth ; hairs, age ; legs short, thick \feet yellow, soft. 

Broilers are young and tender. Fowl requires boiling to be palatable. 

Capons are larger than chickens, of finer flavor, and tender in texture. 

Turkey is similar to chicken but with more fat. Fat is even 
further increased in ducks and geese. Pigeons when wild and 
old are tough and the flesh very dry. Squab (tame, young 
pigeon) is very palatable. Quail and partridge are similar as 
foods. Rabbits and venison are also wild, dark, edible meats. 

The flesh of all such animals is dry, with less red blood, 
but with valuable salts and usually less fat. The flavor is dis- 
tinctive. The dark meat is richest in nutrients ; the white 
requires thorough cooking. The breast is the tenderest part. 
" Legs of walkers " and " wings of fliers " are the most ex- 
ercised, so toughest. Storage of such meats for long, changes 
muscle fibers and connective tissue ; also solubility of nutrients. 

100 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



FRESH WATER AND SEA -¥7?N FISH 



Fish is similar to white meats such as veal and chicken, but 
has a high percentage of refuse (1-f ) and is from J-l water. 
This leaves little solid in any given weight, but as fish is rela- 
tively low in cost, it is not expensive protein (building) food. It 
is as a digestible protein food that it is valued. Salts of fish do 
not vary significantly from those of meats, as is often claimed. 

The composition of fish differs rather widely. Though this 
is most noticed in the fat, it is marked in the amount of pro- 
tein. Protein in fish is partly gelatin. Fish with less than 2% 
of fat (cod, haddock, whitefish) are most digestible. Those 
with more fat, but less than 5 % (mackerel, halibut), are palat- 
able, as are also those with even more than 5 °] (salmon, her- 
ring, bluefish), though these are much less digestible. The 
flavor of fish is affected by their food and the conditions under 
which they live. In salting and preserving, fish, like all meats, 
lose water, so have higher per cent of nutrients in this form. 

Only when fresh can fish be eaten with even safety ; only 
near the source of the supply is fish food advisable. No food 
decomposes more quickly or dangerously. Toxic substances 
(ptomaines), resulting from decay changes, are produced in 
stale fish ; these act as poisons in the human system. Fish 
should always be kept on ice and invariably used promptly. 
When fish has been frozen it should be thawed in cold water 
and cooked at once. It keeps even less well than when fresh. 

Thorough cooking of all fish is imperative ; the danger 
from parasites is thus averted. Such sea fish as sea-shad re- 
quire cooking by a method that permits escape of oil. After 
cooking, all fish should be opaque, not clear. This does not 
require exceedingly high temperature. Boiling is, however, 
less desirable than dry heat of temperature even a little below 
the boiling point of water, but sufficiently continued. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 101 




SHELL-FISH -y>7N FISH IN SEASON 



Oysters are the shell-fish most generally used, due to their 
palatability, digestibility, and high percentage of nutrients. 
China and Italy cultivated oysters 2000 years ago. There 
was a British oyster industry in 50 b.c. 

It is heard that oysters are very similar in nutrients to milk. 
In quantity they are (JgS^™?*' g:J$: nutr £ nts ' 2$) ; also in con- 
taining some of all food-constituents, even carbohydrates, so 
rare in animal food. (Its form in oysters is glycogen, the 
sugar in the liver.) But the proportion of the different food- 
constituents is widely different. (See p. 103.) Protein in oys- 
ters is nearly double that of milk. Compare other constituents. 

Though oysters are more digestible raw, they are not wholly 
safe thus. When fattened in shallow water or kept in water, 
as they usually are while in market, they readily absorb any 
disease-germs the water may contain. These they then trans- 
mit. Such " floating " of oysters gives them a plumper ap- 
pearance, but the smaller-appearing oysters may be safer. 
Oysters slightly cooked are digestible and safer. Overcooked 
oysters are toughened to indigestibility. 

Shell-fish in general (clams, oysters, scallops, shrimps, lob- 
sters) are not easily digested by all persons. Clams have a 
tough muscle ; crabs and lobster, firm, compact fiber that re- 
quires thorough mastication. Shell-fish must always be fresh 
and from a near source of known security from disease. 

In general, all-year fish have little fat, as also those available 
in winter ; spring fish have more ; summer, most. Range of 
cost varies similarly, though among those with fat, bluefish, 
mackerel, herring, eels, are cheap. Dried and smoked fish are 
nutritious, inexpensive, and safe. Canned fish must be taken 
from can when opened and used promptly. All these fish-foods 
build tissue and do not stimulate as do meats with extractives. 

102 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMPOSITION 



FISH FOOD 



Fish are available as follows : 

All year — Bass (3-8 lb.), clams, cod (3-20 lb.), eels (|-i lb.), flounder 
(i-4lb.), haddock (5-8 lb.), halibut, lobster (1-2 lb.), pickerel (1-4 lb.), 
sardines, salt and smoked fish. (Range in cost, 6-25^ per lb.) 

Winter — Oysters (September-May), smelts (September-March), white- 
fish. (Range in cost, 10-25^.) Oysters higher. 

Spi'ing — Herring, shad, trout. (Cost, 25^-$ 1.) Herring cheaper. 

Summer — Bluefish (June-October), crabs, mackerel (April-October), 
perch, salmon(May-September),swordfish(June-September). Range 
in cost, 5-50^. Bluefish least expensive. 

If expense needs to be carefully guarded, what effect would 
this have in the choice ? Which fish could be depended upon 
at each season ? Which would need to be supplemented by 
fatty or other heat-giving foods. 



Fish and Equivalent Foods 






Compare These 


Refuse 


Water 


% IN 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrates 


Ash 


29.9 


58.5 


Cod (fresh) 


I I.I 


.2 





.8 


24.9 


40.2 


Cod (salt) 


16. 


•4 





18.5 


17.7 


61.9 


Halibut 


l S-3 


4.4 





•9 


44.4 


19.2 


Herring (smoked) 


20.5 


8.8 





7-4 


44-7 


40.4 


Mackerel 


10.2 


4.2 





7 


35-i 


5o-7 


Perch 


12.8 


7 





•9 


50.1 


35-2 


Shad 


9.4 


— 









71.2 


Shad roe (eggs) 


20.9 


3-3 


2.6 


i-5 


— 


63-5 


Salmon (canned) 


21.8 


12. 1 


— 


2.6 


5- 


53-6 


Sardines 


237 


12. 1 


— 


5-3 




80.8 


Clams 


10.6 


1.1 


5- 2 


2 -3 


5 2 -4 


36.7 


Crabs 


7-9 


•9 


.6 


i-5 




88.3 


Oysters 


6. 


i-3 


3-3 


1.1 


61.7 


30.7 


Lobsters 


5-9 


7 


.2 


.8 





87.1 


Milk 


3-3 


4- 


5- 


7 


11. 2 


65-5 


Eggs 


131 


9-3 


— 


•9 


41.6 


43-7 


Chicken (young) 


12.S 


1.4 


— 


7 


2 5-9 


47.1 


Chicken (old) 


13-7 


12.3 


— 


7 


24-5 


54-2 


Veal (fore) 


I5- 1 


6. 


— 


.7 


20.7 


56.2 


Veal (hind) 


16.2 


6.6 


— 


.8 



(Rearranged from Farmers' Bullett7i No. 142, United States Department of Agriculture) 



ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 



103 




EGG-CHARACTERISTICS 

Eggs raw are usually digested in the intestines. This makes 
them of use when the stomach itself is not in condition for 
use, but may cause diarrhea. Eggs serve as a concentrated 
protein food. 

The sulphur in eggs, which blackens the spoon, forms, in 
union with other salts and fat, a compound fat (lecithin) in 
the egg-yolk, not always easily digested by every one. When 
it is not, the egg-white can, and should still, be eaten alone. 
But as egg-yolk contains not only more fat and protein than 
egg-white, it promotes growth and is to be eaten when pos- 
sible. It digests raw or hard-boiled, if mixed with vinegar. 

Eggs when fresh sink in cold water. As eggs decompose, the gas 
formed makes them lighter and the egg is thinner in constituency. When 
fresh, eggs look clear through the center, if they are held before a 
candle-flame in a dark room. Fresh eggs do not rattle when shaken. 
Their shells are full. Evaporation with standing empties them somewhat. 

In brine (salt 2 oz. — water 1 pt.) eggs 1 day old sink ; eggs 3 days 
old float beneath surface ; those 14 days old, on the surface. 

For Egg-Refrigeration see p. 220. 

[Egg, milk, seeds (grains), are foods for young animals and plants 
Food for young animals or plants stores for them their tissue- and heat-supply J 




104 



,.-*»* 

...^•i:; 



^"3 <£& 






YOUNG CHICKENS 



4«> ; 



\^\ 



: ^y 



-A 









.^''LZb^ 












> s ^ir;^:V 









\ \' 



^^r 






i: i *-. 



4W\ 



-> 


£>•..,, 


"^? 






... ~- 



^ 



s / 



X 



/ <£:*>/' 






r 



"B=crB,"^3:i; 







" These chickens are but a few days old. Older chickens have relatively larger bodies 
and longer necks and legs " 

Copyrighted by The School Arts Publishing Co., 120 Boylston Street, Boston, Massachusetts. 
Reproduced from "The Good Zoo Drawing Cards," by permission of publishers 



105 



PRESERVATION OF EGGS 



CARE — TEST 



Because the shell of the egg is porous, the water of the egg 
evaporates as it stands exposed to the air. The egg becomes 
lighter ; not only air but bacteria can and do enter the egg ; 
decomposition results ; gases are formed ; the egg grows 
lighter still. The readiness with which eggs decompose makes 
it important to move them with such care as not to break the 
tissue that separates the white and yolk. Eggs need also to 
be kept free from contamination in handling, keeping, using. 
That they may remain fresh, air must be excluded. (See p. 1 08 .) 

Freshness of eggs can be preserved by covering the shell 
with paraffin or oil or embedding them (witk small end down) in 
bran, sawdust, or salt, and keeping them where it is dark and 
cool. Experiment stations and agricultural colleges furnish 
information about coatings for eggs, also sometimes what is 
popularly called " water-glass " for protecting eggs from air. 
Though this makes possible the purchase of eggs when fresh 
and cheap for later use, any overkeeping of eggs is to be 
avoided. Cooking-eggs need freshness no less than those 
eaten alone, to which palatability is indispensable. 

Stored eggs deteriorate. Dried eggs keep better. ' ' Broken ' ' 
eggs are liquid and shell-less, with some preservative (borax 
or formaldehyde) that conceals putrefactive odors of unsafe 
and unsalable eggs. " Broken " eggs form a commercial prod- 
uct from a locality where eggs are plentiful, but too distant to be 
transported in their natural state. Such eggs should never be 
used and are not, except as food-ingredients in commercially 
manufactured foods, as cakes. Egg-substitutes, such as gelatin 
egg-colored, though not to be commended, are less dangerous, 
if good gelatin is used. " Broken " eggs are disease-breeding. 
It should be known, where home preparation of food is not 
practiced, that they are not being used in any foods eaten. 

106 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



QUALITY — USE 




EGG-PRODUCTION 



Natural quality of eggs, like that of all food, depends upon 
the food and condition of living under which they are pro- 
duced. The flavor, color, and keeping quality of eggs vary. 
Though color is not reliably indicative of composition, dark- 
shell eggs usually have larger yolks, so are richer in fat. 
White-shell eggs are usually more delicate in flavor and 
sometimes for this reason more acceptable to invalids. The 
flavor of all eggs is better in the spring ; it is at all times 
dependent upon the food of the fowls. As with milk, so with 
eggs, the taste and odor of the food the animal consumes 
passes to its product. Hens fed little nitrogen have been 
found to produce many eggs but with a maximum of water, 
and keep poorly. Abundant food of both nitrogen and non- 
nitrogen compounds results in larger eggs that keep better. 

Production of eggs cooperatively has in some communities 
insured a supply of freshly laid eggs. It is claimed that 
40 hens in an outlaying lot 40' x 40' cared for scientifically 
by boys have supplied a city neighborhood and provided sup- 
port for a family. Whatever the source of the egg-supply it 
needs to be reliable and to furnish good eggs at all seasons. 
The quality of eggs is no less important than that of meat or 
milk. Less tender cuts of superior animals may be cooked 
palatably ; unfresh eggs cannot be. Skim-milk from health- 
ful cows is wholesome, though less rich than whole milk. 
Inferior eggs are unpalatable and easily become disease- 
breeding instead of health-giving. 

All food should be purchased by weight, even eggs. They range in 
weight per dozen from 1 + lb. to if + lb. (or il oz. to 2 J oz. per egg). One 
pound of steak without bone serves 3 persons. How many eggs would 
equal the amount eaten by each ? How many eggs would equal in pro- 
tein the protein in 1 lb. beef ? Compare this number with that which equals 
it in weight ? Would so many eggs be eaten by any one at a time ? 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 107 



EGGS 




CONCENTRATED FOODS 



Of foods with little waste and large percentage of nutrients, 
eggs, milk, bread, are the most important. Though they are 
often called whole, entire, complete, or perfect foods, they are 
rather concentrated foods, universally used wherever their 
expense does not forbid. Only milk ever serves alone for 
human food, and it does so only in infancy for a limited period. 
But eggs, milk, bread, are concentrated foods of great value. 

Eggs supply the materials from which chickens form. 
Until their activity begins, their need is for water, 74 °/c ; nitro- 
gen, 12% ; fat, 10% ; mineral salts, 1 %. Part of the shell may 
be used as needed. The shell is porous ; the air enters through 
it, which is used in the changes occurring as the chick forms in 
the egg. With the beginning of active life chickens need, and 
take so soon as they emerge from the shell, the meal-food that 
gives them energy. Like meats, eggs have no carbohydrate, 
but some fat, though not enough to sustain human activity 
with egg-foods. 



%IN 


Protein 


Fat 


Mineral Salts 


Water 


Egg whole (without shell) 

Egg-white 

Egg-yolk 

Egg-solids 


i + 

i 
1 

6 


i- 


l 
TOO 

TOO" 

i (shell) 


3 

4 

9 
1 

4-4 



Milk has carbohydrate that egg lacks, and meat has extrac- 
tives. Meat contains the products of decomposition due to 
activity of animals ; eggs do not. Egg-white contains about 
the amount of water in milk. Egg-solids are chiefly protein 
in the form of albumen ; this is most digestible, especially 
raw. Egg-yolk contains more fat than is found in cream. 
(See p. 114.) Egg-salts, in both white and yolk, like those 
of milk, are of value, particularly for growing children. 



108 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




COMPOSITION — COOKING 4?I>J EGGS AS FOOD 



As eggs are laid the shell is almost full of material. The 
egg-contents do not thicken for nearly twelve hours. It is bet- 
ter even to delay their use for twenty-four hours longer. Only 
eggs that are newly laid or kept fresh are fit for human food. 

Eggs are used not only as an article of diet, that is, a 
food at a meal, but also largely as a food-ingredient, as in 
flour- and other food-mixtures. They add nourishment and 
lightness. Compare composition of eggs, chicken, veal, fish, 
milk (p. 103). By what should eggs be supplemented ? Choose 
specific foods from table on p. 192. What foods can eggs be 
substituted for ? 

Cooking of eggs is important, as it affects their digestibility. 
Eggs, like meat, lose water when cooked ; otherwise they do 
not change in composition, but the albumen coagulates. The 
protein and fat of egg are usually entirely assimilated. Egg- 
yolk cooked either soft or hard is equally digestible with un- 
cooked. Egg-white uncooked is more digestible than cooked. 

Digestibility of Cooked Eggs 



Eggs cooked at 21 2° F. 


for 3 min., after 5 hr., 


8 +% undigested 


Eggs " « 212° F. 


5 min., " 5 hr., 


4—% undigested 


Eggs « « 212° F. 


" 20 min., " 5 hr., 


4 +% undigested 


Eggs " " 180 F. 


" 5-10 min., " 5 hr., 


fully digested 



(Results in a government food-experiment) Note time — temperature — result 

Hard-boiled eggs require thorough mastication. 

For adults in health eggs are a wholesome repair food. 
Though the yolk gives seven times the heat-energy of the 
white, eggs need to be combined with energy foods. If eaten 
with bread or on toast, what they lack is added. For children 
and invalids they give, besides salts, a most digestible protein 
that builds advantageously for growth and recuperative repair. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 109 



MILK-SUPPLY 



SUBSTANTIAL FOODS 



Foods that contain in appreciable quantities all the constit- 
uents that sustain life are substantial factors in the diet, though 
none are so balanced in their constituents as to be a desirable 
diet alone. Milk is more nearly so for children than other 
substantial foods are for any one. But even milk when used 
alone in infancy requires some modification. 

The purity of the milk-supply is one of the most important 
of the food-problems of humanity. Every community is in 
need of pure milk in abundance. The health and growth of 
children is largely dependent upon this. Neglect of the milk- 
supply is negligence toward life itself. Children need care 
taken for them of the milk they are to drink ; they are help- 
less themselves. (See Milk Commissions, p. 115.) 

Cleanliness of the environment of milk-cows, of cows them- 
selves, of workers, and of receptacles is an absolute requirement 
for a clean milk-supply. The health of the animals, their food, 
the water they drink, the air they breathe, all affect the quality 
of milk they give. Mixed milk from a number of cows is 
preferable to milk from one, as such a supply minimizes the 
probability of poor milk, also of concentration of any unsus- 
pected danger. Milk-cows need constant intelligent inspection 
and care. 

Transportation of milk is to-day almost universal. In such 
dissemination milk needs protection from dust and contami- 
nation, and must be at lowered temperature to prevent not 
only souring but the development of any bacteria. The deliv- 
ery of milk, through which it is widely distributed to family 
consumers, requires no less scientific attention, though it usu- 
ally receives less. Consumers, too, have a responsibility beyond 
caring for the milk they use, in the complete cleaning of milk- 
bottles immediately upon emptying them. 

110 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




COMPOSITION — USE -Af7?\ MILK AS FOOD 



In infancy, milk is the food of the child until its ninth 
month. During its first year a child takes approximately 125 
gallons (1000 lb.) of milk. A child takes \ its weight in food 
daily. In a year it has gained 13 lb. Of the 1000 lb. of 
milk 1 30 lb. are milk-solids (40 P — 40 F — 50 sugar), which 
build the child-body 1 3 lb., supply its heat and energy for its 
activity. For every pound of food that has gone into building 
the body, 9 lb. have been used in living the life. 

With childhood's second year the food-need changes to one 
of growing variety in food. Milk continues as part of its diet, 
but a decreasing part, until in adult life milk becomes principally 
a food-ingredient. If in adult life milk is used as a beverage, 
it must be regarded as a substantial factor in the diet. The 
foods with which it is combined must supplement, not dupli- 
cate milk in composition, or the body will be overburdened with 
unneeded food. In illness, when activity is lessened, milk then 
often fully meets the body-need for sustenance and reinforce- 
ment of physical resistance. Milk is deficient in energy-giving 
power. It is a building and tissue-repair food in liquid form. 

In made foods milk as an ingredient increases the nutritive 
value and palatability. Used as a cooking-liquid in substitution 
for water, it increases richness and fineness of texture. 

hi composition milk is nearly T 9 ^ water (Sy.i%). It con- 
tains 4% protein, 4% fat, 5% sugar, 1% mineral matter. In 
adult-diet even a light diet or narrow ration (that is, a diet in 
which there is little carbohydrate in proportion to protein) con- 
tains z\ times as much carbohydrate as protein. In milk the 
sugar (carbohydrate) is only \ more. Were adults to attempt 
to live on milk they would take an excess of water (children 
need more proportionally) and more protein and fat than the 
body can stand, in order to get the carbohydrate it needs. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 111 




MILK AS CONSUMED -V?77N DIGESTIBILITY 



The composition of a food shows the quantities of its con- 
stituents. Thus is disclosed the possible nutritive value of food. 
How these constituents act in the human digestive tract con- 
trols their use to the human body ; this is their digestibility. 
Food must be or become soluble and ultimately somewhat 
liquefied for passage through the digestive tract and into use 
by body-tissues. Though milk is in liquid form and composed 
of soluble substances, it undergoes a number of changes before 
it comes into actual use to the body. How the body is able 
to effect these changes determines the digestion of a food. 
Though the general process of digestion is alike in all persons, 
all have not the same degree of vitality in all parts of the diges- 
tive tract, therefore cannot digest equally well all foods. Milk 
is one of the most digestible of foods (95% is digested), yet 
some persons do not digest it easily or quickly. (See p. 218.) 

Different digestive agencies make the different food- 
constituents of use to the body. Therefore what happens 
naturally or otherwise to change food-constituents must be 
observed, if food is to be made digestible. (See p. 113.) 

Milk-solids (13% in all) are its nutrients. These are held 
in solution in the 87% of water in milk. But in the stom- 
ach, milk becomes a solid food that must be broken up again. 
In this usually lies the digestive difficulty whenever it exists. 
Protein in milk is in two forms, casein and lact-albumin. The 
latter is only \ of the protein ; it coagulates with prolonged 
heating. 

Casein (3% of milk-solids) becomes a solid when milk sours, 
or acid or rennet is added, or it is heated. This is called the 
curd. The liquid left is the whey ; it holds the sugar and 
mineral matter. When rennet is added to milk, casein coagu- 
lates and changes ; this happens in the stomach. 

112 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




AVAILABILITY -JtfTTN CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK 



Milk taken slowly into the stomach usually forms curd 
in small particles, so is digested thoroughly. Crackers and 
crumbed bread in milk also prevent the formation of a large 
clot and thus make milk more digestible. When milk is used 
as a food-ingredient, this is also effected. The lime salts in 
milk keep the casein in solution. Lime-water added to milk 
acts similarly in preventing an indigestible clot's forming in 
the stomach. Barley-water in milk also does this. 

Protein in milk forms the scum when milk is heated. It is 
the change in the protein in milk that makes boiled milk less 
digestible (when it is so) than uncooked milk. Hutchinson, 
the food-scientist, claims that milk heated even to the boiling 
point for 30 min. is as fully digested by infants as raw milk. 
Many others say it is less so. But to insure its safety when 
its source is not securely sanitary, it is heated to destroy all 
germs possible. (See pasteurized and certified milk, p. 118.) 

Fat in milk (cream) is broken up into fine globules. This 
facilitates its digestion. (Fat particles are visible under the 
microscope ; see them if possible.) Cream and butter are both 
digestible, indeed the most generally digestible fats. Fat is the 
constituent that varies most in milk. Four per cent is the aver- 
age ; it ranges from 2 to 6 % . This is sometimes a natural 
difference due mainly to the difference in feeding cows and 
the breed. Adulteration may also alter the quantity of cream. 

Carbohydrate in milk is in the form of milk-sugar (lactose). 
This sugar is less sweet and less fermentable than other 
sugars ; it is therefore in less danger of disturbing digestion. 

Salts of milk (chiefly potash, lime, phosphates) aid in 
holding the solids in solution. In the body these salts build 
bone, besides furthering digestion. In illness involving bone- 
deterioration these salts act as repair agents. 



ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 113 



FORMS OF MILK 




NATURAL AND OTHER 



Whole milk is milk as it is produced. As milk stands, the 
cream forms by the fat rising to the top. When the cream 
is skimmed off, the milk left is known as skim-milk. Besides 
these three natural forms of sweet milk the constituents of 
milk are separated differently and serve different but common 
food-purposes. The fat to form butter is taken from cream 
that contains from 9 to 46% fat. Butter is a concentration 
of milk-fat. It contains an average of 86% fat. The gov- 
ernment requires that it have at least 82.5% and not more 
than 16% water. The curd of milk is separated, giving a simi- 
lar concentration of protein that with some fat forms cheese. 

Milk and its Products 



%IN 


Protein 


Fat 


Sugar 


Ash 


Water 


Whole milk 

Skim-milk 

Buttermilk 

Condensed milk 

Cream (see note below) . . . 
Butter 


3-3 
3-4 
3- 
8.8 

2-5 

1.1 

27.7 
2 5-9 


4- 

•3 

•5 

8-3 

18.5 

85. 

36.8 

337 


5- 

5-i 

4.8 

54-i 

4-5 

4.1 

2.4 


•7 

•7 

•7 

1.9 

•5 
3- 
4- 
3-8 


87. 

9°-5 

91. 

26.9 

74- 

11. 

27.4 

34-2 


Cheese (Cheddar) 

Cheese (full cream) .... 



(From Farmers' Bulleti?i No. 142, United States Department of Agriculture) 

Milk weighs about I lb. per pt. ; \\ lb. yield 18.5% fat in cream (1 lb.). 
How much fat will be in 1 qt. milk ? 1 pt. cream ? Compare ratio of 
fat in each with ratio in cost. What proportion of cost is left for 
expense of separating and separate delivery ? 

Cream removed by a separator is 38-46% fat, 6+% solids, 51 +% water. 

(Globules magnified 300 diameters) 



FAT IN MILK 



• „° c 



T\ Oj 'S&„ O e °SUr&> -« 






Skim-milk 



Whole milk 




114 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



SUGAR — FAT 



ENERGY FROM MILK 



The heat-energy supply from milk comes mainly from its 
fat. Milk brings only sugar as a carbohydrate. The body needs 
starch as well as sugar. Bread, crackers, corn meal, rice, added 
to milk, increase the carbohydrate and bring starch into the diet. 

Milk alone digests from 95 to 97% when taken slowly. In 
a mixed diet (animal and vegetable food) it digests completely. 
It furthers the digestion of other foods with which it is pre- 
pared or eaten, when it is incorporated in the diet, not added 
beyond the need for food. Milk taken quickly is acted upon 
as a whole by the rennin. The casein is formed into a large 
clot that the digestive juices cannot penetrate quickly or fully. 

Cream that is stiff rather than simply thick is probably 
adulterated with gelatin. If in 12-18 hours cream of good 
quality does not rise to about -j 1 ^ of the volume of the milk, 
that milk is not of superior quality. Skim-milk is \-i°fo fat ; 
whole milk, 2-6% ; cream, 15-35%. Cream should be i fat 
as purchased. Butter has about 4 times as much fat as cream 
(only twice that of " separator cream "). As fat is laxative in 
effect, it furthers digestion of milk. Skim-milk is therefore 
less digestible, except as a food-ingredient in cooking ; it is 
nutritious and inexpensive. 

Compare cost of butter with that of cream. What percentage is left 
for work in butter-making ? Compare whole and condensed milk, whole 
and skim-milk. (Note especially nutritive value of skim-milk.) Use skim- 
milk and buttermilk. The flavor of the latter is the greatest appreciable 
difference. This is agreeable to many. For adults it is usually digestible. 
It may aid digestion through the agency of bacteria present. 

All communities need and are increasingly establishing 
Milk Commissions to insure scientific inspection and regula- 
tion of all milk marketed. 

See a dairy and creamery in operation if possible. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS ■ 115 



CHANGES IN MILK - J #77N BACTERIAL 



Experience shows that milk undergoes many changes. 
Science has studied these and finds they are effected by the 
presence of bacteria. Though milk has been experimentally 
obtained without any bacteria, it is not without bacteria as it 
comes into use. Bacteria usually multiply rapidly. Though 
all are not harmful, any bacteria consumed in large numbers 
undermine health and gravely affect the death-rate of infants. 

Drs. Park and Holt find, of infants under i year, during 3 mos. in summer : 
None died that were fed human milk or certified milk of cows ; 

3% died of those fed pasteurized milk (treated to reduce bacteria) ; 

9% " " " bottled milk (protected thus from dairy) ; 

20% ' condensed milk or loose milk sold open in bulk. 

Milk feeds germs. Many that would not grow in water 
thrive in milk. Some produce harmless changes in milk as 
souring. Others change the milk itself dangerously ; this 
happens when milk is kept under unsanitary conditions. A 
ferment may then enter it which produces a substance (tyrotox- 
icon) that causes serious, even fatal, intestinal disorders. It is 
this that happens when ptomaine poisoning occurs from cream, 
ice-cream, cheese. A third type of bacteria are themselves 
directly disease-producing and may grow in milk without chang- 
ing its composition significantly. But when these enter the 
human body with the milk, they there cause detrimental changes 
in body-tissues. All bacteria cannot live thus, but those produc- 
ing many human diseases can, such as those of dysentery, 
cholera, typhoid and scarlet fevers, diphtheria, tuberculosis. 

a b c d e f g h 

ft 1 3* ^ •&$* ~.p, 0f£ ^fe svl^ c fM 
°fc s « & Si W % *<£ #" 

Disease-producing Bacteria 

«, pus-producing; b, pneumonia; c, tuberculosis; d, tetanus (lockjaw). (Conn and 
Buddington) e and /, typhoid bacilli. (Pfeiffer) g, pus ; /i, dysentery. (Sleiger) 

116 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



CARE ~lSf\ QUALITY OF MILK 

Souring of milk is produced by lactic-acid bacteria. During 
it some of the sugar of milk (lactose) is converted into lactic 
acid. (What is the effect of acid upon milk ?) Bacteria in 
living take what they need for food by breaking up the sub- 
stances used. The products resulting from this, their life- 
activity, finally make their own growth impossible, though not 
essentially the growth of other bacteria. Lactic-acid bacteria 
ultimately cease to grow as milk sours. Souring then goes no 
further ; the sugar that is then unchanged remains as sugar. 

Milk sours easily; that is, lactic-acid fermentation occurs 
readily when milk is open to the air at or above the usual house- 
temperature (70 F.). Milk that does not sour under such con- 
ditions within a few hours has generally had some chemical 
added to counteract the acidity or prevent the fermentation. 

Temperature below yo° F. checks souring, as it is unfavor- 
able to bacterial growth. Milk should be kept on ice or in a 
cooled atmosphere ; it should be cooled immediately after a 
milking, to avoid souring. Sudden change of temperature 
will often sour milk that has stood, as will mixing milk of 
different ages. Sour milk is of value in cooking ; is advised 
as a drink by some diet-specialists, but only as the kinds of 
bacteria that it will contain are scientifically controlled. 

In the house, as in the dairy, milk must be kept in clean 
utensils, covered but not air-tight (as some bacteria grow in it 
only in the absence of air), and at low temperature in an at- 
mosphere free from odors, as milk readily absorbs these. It 
should be kept in an isolated compartment in a refrigerator. 
a b 

#. A & * & .'1st 4« % 

Some Bacteria that may be in Milk 
a, lactic acid, produce souring; b, produce slimy milk. (Conn and Marshall) 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 117 




PRESERVATION OF MILK -JffTTN PROTECTION 



Milk needs to be both fresh and clean. Its purity and 
freshness may both be destroyed by bacteria. Hence bacteria 
must be excluded so far as possible, and milk must be kept 
under conditions that discourage bacterial growth, so that dis- 
ease and death to infants may not ensue. If milk-bottles are 
not effectively sterilized before they are re-used, they can breed 
disease and spread it by contaminating the atmosphere as well 
as by carrying into milk whatever they contain. To heat milk 
sufficiently (i8o° F.) to destroy the bacteria that may be harm- 
ful changes its protein, as noted earlier. Since it has not been 
conclusively proved that it is assuredly as digestible for chil- 
dren thus, other means of making it safe have been sought. 

Certified milk is milk that has had every care of environ- 
ment, animals, workers, receptacles in its production. Ani- 
mals, workers, and milk are all scientifically examined. The 
milk is then bottled in sterile bottles with sterile covers. Even 
milk so cared for is not germ-free, but it has only a few thou- 
sand bacteria where other milk has millions. Only with the 
rarest exceptions has certified milk been found to contain 
disease-producing bacteria. It costs nearly twice what is 
charged for ordinary milk. 

Pasteurized milk has been evenly heated for 10-20 min, 
at 157° F. y at which temperature the bacterial life is greatly 
reduced and milk is changed less than when boiled. This is 
accomplished by heating milk in bottles in a water-bath at 
1 59 F., so as to avoid high direct heat. Formerly pasteuriz- 
ing was advocated as a home precaution, then scientifically 
somewhat discouraged for a while, but is now re-advised as a 
more general practice for the milk-supply. Such milk is not 
so palatable, but is safer. Yet bacterial spores (see p. 71) are 
not destroyed, so its safety is not completely assured. 

118 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 






TEST — FORMS 



PRESERVATION OF MILK 



Milk germ-free is the need, but to be made sterile (germ- 
free) would require a degree of heat which changes its com- 
position and digestibility unfavorably. Pasteurized milk and 
certified milk, as noted, are safer than ordinary raw milk. 
Other means to this end change the form of milk somewhat. 

Milk-powder is mainly milk-curd dried and powdered ; it is 
mixed with water as used. Evaporated milk is skim-milk with 
the water evaporated ; it contains the solids of skim-milk. 
Its principal use is that of being mixed with special prepared 
flours. Condensed milk has had most of the water evaporated, 
high heat applied to destroy bacteria, and sugar added. Sugar 
acts as a preservative, but it renders such milk unfit for use 
for all purposes milk usually serves. All these forms of pre- 
served milk may become re-infected with bacteria after they 
are opened for use. Koumiss is fermented milk that is of 
such digestibility as to be a valuable adult invalid food. 

Color of milk is not essentially indicative of quality. Light- 
colored milk may be superior to rich-looking milk, as the latter 
may be artificially colored ; but very pale, thin milk, even if 
not watered, is poor. Sediment in milk indicates adulteration 
or lack of cleanliness. 

Milk that shows neglect or adulteration should be referred 
to the Board of Health or Milk Inspector or Commission. 

Butter as well as milk and cream needs to be fresh and 
pure. Pure butter boils quietly when heated in a spoon ; 
impure does not. 

Milk furnishes principally protein and fat. The sugar and 
mineral salts are far from unimportant, but would not in them- 
selves give milk the significance it has as a food. The sepa- 
rated fat gives cream and butter ; the separated protein with 
some fat and salts gives cheese. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 119 



BUTTER ^yfr^ CHARACTERISTICS 

Butter, like cream, from which it is separated by churning, 
is the most digestible animal fat. Fat gives over twice the 
heat-energy of the same amount of starch or sugar and gives 
it more rapidly than starch. But only one fourth or less of the 
energy food of the body can come from fat. Butter is the 
staple diet-fat, except where it cannot be afforded. 

Some substitutes for butter are wholesome, and if sold for 
what they are and are worth are not fraudulent foods. Neither 
the digestion nor palatability of other fats fully equals that of 
butter, nor do they promote growth as it does. 

All fats have some fixed fatty acids and some volatile ; one 
of the latter is peculiar to butter. When other fats than milk- 
fat are used (as beef -fat), they are usually flavored with some 
butter, also colored to resemble it. The color of butter is not 
significant. Much butter that is yellow is not rich, only artifi- 
cially colored. Colorless unsalted butter is the most delicate 
and expensive. It requires the freshest production, as salt is a 
preservative. The flavor of butter is due to the effect of bacte- 
ria upon cream ; as the bacteria differ, so the flavor. Flavor is 
increasingly regulated by artificially "ripening" cream with 
bacteria selected to produce the flavor desired. 

Oleomargarine or butterine is clarified beef-fat, often with cottonseed- 
oil too, churned in milk. It lacks casein or volatile fatty acids, so such 
characteristics of butter ; also is without its aroma. Oleomargarine serves 
some purposes wholesomely and many claim palatably. In cooking some 
think it indistinguishable, except in cake and candy. It makes cake heavy 
when used alone ; it fails to remain mixed in candy. 

Renovated butter is rancid (or stale) butter remade by melting and 
pouring the fat off the casein that settles, then rechurning the fat. Such 
butter is improved, but is not the equivalent of fresh butter. Butter 
becomes rancid through changes in the casein or by the fats decompos- 
ing. Heating fat makes it less digestible. 

120 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



DAIRY-PRODUCTS 



CHEESE 



Milk and its derivatives — cream, butter, cheese — are all 
dairy-products, but with growing specialization cheese has 
become a specific and elaborated industry. 

Cheese is produced from milk by rennet precipitating the 
curd that carries with it fat, some salts, and even a little 
sugar. (Note composition, p. 114.) Common salt is added 
and coloring matter is usual. The curd is drained of the 
whey and ripened by the action of bacteria. The flavor de- 
sired is now produced by scientific selection of these ferments. 

Cottage cheese is the simplest. It is the curd, often co- 
agulated simply by heating, mixed with cream and seasoned. 
NeUfchatel is a sweet-milk cheese coagulated by rennet at 
high temperature ; it is made especially soft and smooth by 
kneading. Such cheese is very digestible. 

Some cheese contains mold, as Roquefort. It is goats' and 
ewes' milk and bread, ripened in caves. The mold distributes 
itself through the cheese, producing its distinctive taste and 
odor. Other cheese is flavored through some fungus growth 
penetrating it ; such is Stilton. These are the richer kinds of 
cheese ; they are less generally digestible. 

Between these extremes are many very palatable and nutri- 
tious forms of cheese, variously prepared but differing mainly 
in flavor through the effect upon the milk of the bacteria used. 
Among these are Cheddar, Edam, Parmesan, Swiss, Sage. 

Adulteration of cheese is rarer than formerly. It consists 
in use of skim-milk and substitution of less expensive fats 
than that of milk. The resulting food called " filled " cheese 
may be wholesome, but it must now be sold for what it is and 
is worth. Harmless coloring matter is not forbidden. 

Cheese is -^ protein, ^ fat, J water ; in small quantity with 
other food is an aid to digestion but itself digests slowly. 

ANIMAL LIFE AND ANIMAL FOODS 121 



FOOD OF ANIMALS 
HAY AND FORAGE 



HAY — OATS 

ACREAGE BY STATES — 1909 




OATS 



ACREAGE BY STATES — 1909 



j^f^^ 
















/CJ 7 S 

K^_ I' Da h 

v*. ( N£v - / 

V * \ / ° 

• 40 1,000 acres ^ ij 

• 300,000 to 400,000 acres 
O 200,000 to 300,000 acres 
9 100,000 to 200,000 acres 
O Less than 100,000 acres. 


ONT 

a 

w Yo. I 

° r 

I COLO. 






s—t^-^ \ p i- : 

• • 1 OHIO lWr^SToM' 

r\ a/ v a. 4 

ALA.X GA. V/ 
9 I I 

)fla\ 
SO \ 


r v^ 

o M /^ 

pb u - 




"»-\ 


Vw i s. / 
J««a I 

IOWA ) \ 




S. DAK. 
• • 

1«* 




1 "ft- 


MO. ( 

• 9 IX 




N. MEX. 
O 


| (miss. 

TEXAS \lA.L_ 




The heavy lines ( — 


■) show geographic divisions \ ( 











(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 19 10) 

222 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



WORK — FOOD 

HORSES AND OTHER WORK-ANIMALS 



FARM ANIMALS 

ON FARMS — 1910 





i^N-. 
















J \ M Oiv r 
f < • 9 ' 

■— JL_ / Wy o. 
// * 

hr AH \ 

/ O /COLO. 






LA Jj2-^! 

o / X 1 — © > 

\ ©9 A •2-fl 
o® h»o iv-e^rfv 

ALA A GA. NX 


jS7A /^ 

r9j^j> 




1 N. DAK \ 
1 * 8 " 1 

„•'• 1 
S- DAK. 

® a L 

• ••) 
- N EBR. 1 
"I 909 


V.W1S./ 

©9 ©«\ — v 

1 O W A J 

\ c©® © 

S © © V, 8 © 

MO. 1 / 
00 °\/ 




1 ©e© 

I KANS. 
1 0990 




A S' i -/N.M EX . 

/ • 


1 00 

O l< L A 
U^0©O 


\ ® / 

■ ARK./ 

© / 

— S I 




©200,000 horses, etc. <-> I 

S 150,000 to 200,000 horses, etc. \ 
O 100,000 to 150,000 horses, etc. \ 
9 50,000 to 100,000 horses, etc. N^/ 
O Less than 50,000 horses, mules, etc. 


00O0O 
TEXAS 
90O09 


1 )#9 

V a/ 


©9 > 09 r 

]fla\ 

7® \ 






The heavy lines ( - 


— ) show geographic div 


isions \ J 









ALL CATTLE 



ON FARMS — 1910 




(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 
CYCLE OF NATURE 



123 



FOOD-ANIMALS 
ALL SHEEP 



MUTTON — PORK 

ON FARMS — 1910 




ALL SWINE 



ON FARMS — 1910 




#200,1.100 swine 
9150,000 to 200,000 swine 
0100,000 to 150,000 swine 
« 50,000 to 100,000 swine 
O Less tban 50,000 swine 



The heavy lines (^™) show geographic divisions 



(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 

124 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COWS — FOWLS 

DAIRY COWS 



FOOD-ANIMALS 
ON FARMS — 1910 



ssy-~-- 










ijv 










K^> 






f \ rv 


ONT 


N.DAK \ /'y? 




kT ' i 


'°^W 


9 


L_^f_\ • • • r s -cr/^ > /"I 

S. DAK. \WIS.//««VN <7Wi'» C 


wKi 

^2-V^- 






>L§$o 






Wy [ 

o f 


~$5?* S *' 


( \ 


U T AH 

/ ° J 


colo 
a 


N E BR. \» 

"l * * r— ' 






•• s 






1 KANS. 


mo- ^ u/^y V/- 1 ♦o_~: 

tr- " — ^7 !*■ C ' S 

7^±£Jv; — Kf 

a r k. / — r^T^xs- c- y 
•• / \ \»y 










1 *" 




^v \ 


Ariz 1 
( 


N-MEX. 1 
O 1 


OKLA. 

L/ •» 




• 400,000 dairy cows ^— — Lr 


^ LissJalA-X G . A # Y 




9 150,000 to 200,000 dairy cows 




••* J^^ /JC: fe^ 




O 100,000 to 150,000 dairy cows 






© 50,000 to 100,000 dairy cows 








O Less than 50,000 dairy cows 




\ j^ 1 ° \ 




The heavy lines ( - 


— ) show geographic divisions I | VI 





ALL FOWLS 



ON FARMS — 1910 




(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 19 10) 
CYCLE OF NATURE 



125 





SUMMARY ON ANIMAL FOODS IN THE DIET 

ANIMAL FOODS 

Meat and Fish 
Chicken and Eggs 
Milk — Butter — Cheese 

All build tissue and bone with protein and mineral salts and 

supply heat-energy with fats chiefly. 
Animal foods are all high priced, though all are not equally so. 

Some fish and tougher cuts of meat are less expensive. 
Cooking alters animal foods significantly. It often increases 

their pa'iatability but usually lessens their digestibility. 
Digestibility of animal foods is high — 9S c fo an< 3 more. 

Chicken — meats — eggs — fish "| Order of digestibility 
Butter — milk — cheese J from left to right 

Time of digestion is often long, even when a food digests 
completely. Foods that are digested in the intestine are 
necessarily slow of digestion, because it takes some time 
for them even to reach the intestine. Eggs fail to excite 
a flow of gastric juice and must pass to the intestine 
before they are digested. Cheese too digests there, so is 
delayed. Eaten regularly and in small quantities with 
other foods it promotes their digestion ; but eaten as a 
food intermittently it digests less generally experience 
shows, though laboratory experiments find it is finally 
totally soluble in the digestive juices. It has long been 
a valued work-food of Europe's workers. 

Building foods are advised in less variety for the individual than 
vegetables, because if any do not digest, they leave danger- 
ous waste products for the body to dispose of. Therefore 
those that prove fully available should be the choice in 
even maturity, and these not in excess of the body-need. 

126 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 





DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY AND EVOLUTION OF HUMAN FOOD 

Pursuit of Food — Invasion 
Production of Food — Invention 
Manufacture of Food — Industry 
Preparation of Food — Science 

When humanity existed as one living group, human food 
consisted of roots, seeds, fruits. As the number of individuals 
increased, the means of subsistence became too limited. 
Humanity then began to separate into groups that scattered 
more and more over the surface of the earth in pursuit of 
food. Scientists that study human life to learn what it was 
like in the past, find that the ways of obtaining subsistence 
so differed at different times and among different groups 
as to mark somewhat different stages in the development 
of humanity itself. 

Methods of production thus mark periods of growth of 
humanity as a whole. But development is never exactly to- 
gether in any age or even fully so in any place at any time. 

Humanity in its early life had not so fully emerged from 
its animal ancestry as to live on the ground as it now does. 
Humankind was then still tree-dwellers, ate roots and fruits, 
and began to speak articulated language. The next stage of 
development, marking changes that advance human life some- 
what further, finds humankind eating fish and other small 
animals, having discovered fire, making weapons of wood and 
stone and using these in the hunt and war. 

Neighboring groups contended for the food-sources and for 
the desirable locations for dwelling and hunting. They warred 
with one another for the actual things 
'Al]f$ use d in order to live, grow, develop. 
Then even cannibalism was practiced. 

LIVING — INDUSTR Y— COMMERCE — SCIENCE 127 





PRIMITIVE LIFE i^& MOVEMENT IN LIVING 

By working to live, creative effort developed. No longer was 
the sole occupation search for what existed which would sustain 
human life. Pursuit of sustenance was now furthered by manu- 
facture of means to work with, as the bow and arrow. New 
uses were also developed for what humanity then had found. 
Implements of stone were made with which to produce as 
well as weapons to war, to prepare food as well as to hunt it, to 
protect or shelter as well as prospect or pursue what was desired. 
Mats and baskets were woven. The art of weaving was born. 

As human living advanced further, pottery was invented, 
animals were domesticated, and other animal products besides 
meat began to be used. Milk became a food, furs were used 
to protect ; agriculture developed ; corn was cultivated in the 
west of the world ; in the east all other grains were grown. 

The east tended to increased domestication of animals, and 
the west to cultivation of plants that nourish. This required 
irrigation artificially produced. Building began with stones and 
bricks sun-dried. The caring for animals led to formation of 
herds and pastoral life among people. Thus more nourishment 
was needed for both animals and humanity. To produce it in- 
creased agriculture. Life became less wandering and warring 
and more sedentary and varied in manner of living. Cannibal- 
ism began to disappear. The energy spent earlier in invasion 
in search of supplies was passing into invention that aided in 
supplying living-needs from the resources of the environment. 

Iron ore began to be melted and formed for uses it could 
serve. The plow and other implements, as the axe, spade, 
hoe, made less formidable the cultivation of the soil. Farming 
flourished as was impossible when humanity was less well 
equipped. This gave a renewed impulse to agriculture. Al- 
phabetical writing had its origin at this stage of human advance. 

128 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




GROWTH IN POWER ^=^i EVOLUTION OF CIVILIZATION 



The quest for food led to the conquest of nature, not to 
despoil nature, but to work with her to increase her fertility 
that she might produce what humanity needed to live, grow, 
reproduce, and develop. Such interworking of humanity and 
nature to produce enough to meet an increasing need for food 
still goes on. Taking from natiire, then from one another 
disappears before working with nature to provide for all. 
Growth in experience has resulted not only in expanding 
food and shelter but in extending human intelligence . 

As human intelligence has increased it has worked upon the 
problems presented by living. It has opened new opportunities 
to provide for and expand human life. Its progress has, how- 
ever, not been an even advance, nor have all steps been forward. 

Development of invention in the use of iron for imple- 
ments, as aids to more effective work, gave an impulse to 
mental extension as well as control of work. Tools for build- 
ing extended construction ; wagons for travel and ships for 
sailing made exploration more possible as well as products 
more varied. As metals were found to be malleable, so could 
be wrought, the mechanical arts were born. Manufacture of 
arms and wall-protection of cities followed. Architecture arose. 

And with alphabetical language now at command an inter- 
pretation and record of life began to take form in mythology, 
poetry, chronicle. The ideal imaginings, the emotions, the 
events, of human living were expressed. These products of 
writing appeared in the Orient and the countries encircling the 
Mediterranean sea — Egypt, Greece, Italy. In this human- 
ity was giving new expression to its interests, while growing in 
facility in meeting the needs of physical living. Civilization 
superseded earlier stages of living ; it permeated Europe and 
spread. Humanism is the new stage of race-life approaching. 

LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE— SCIENCE 129 



LIVING — INDUSTRY ^^^J COMMERCE — SCIENCE 

Development of Humanity — Evolution of Food 127 

Primitive Life — Growth — Civilization 1 28-9 

Industry — Commerce — Science 1 30- 1 

Food-Sources — Production — Preparation — Practices 132-3 

Food-Supply — Nourishment — Nurture — Health 134-5 

Clean Food — Cleanliness — Wholesomeness — Purity 136-7 

Adulteration — Food Law — Food-Labels 1 38-9 

Selling — Advertisement — Understanding — Saving 140-1 

Wholesome Foods — Scientific Modification of Food 142-3 

Canned Food — Manufactured Products 144-5 

Buying — Economy — Investigation — Testing 1 46-7 

Artificial Foods — Chemicals in Food 148-9 

Food-Regulation — Food-Deterioration 1 5 o- 1 

Sterilization — Preservation — Refrigeration 152-5 

Food-Cost — Markets — Exchange — Consumption 1 56-9 





Production — Manufacture — Distribution — Consumption 

are interwoven now with 
Nature, Invention, Industry, Transportation, Commerce, 

Science and with Humanity as workers as well as 

consumers. 
The work of providing food, together with the nourishment it 

necessitates, constitutes many modern problems of trade 

and labor as well as human nourishment and health. 

These are more and more coming under community 

consideration. So food as it is prepared together for 

all is becoming a concern of all. 

130 FOOD-SUPPLY— HUMAN NEED- AND WORK-CYCLE 



INDUSTRY — COMMERCE ^^%S SCIENCE 

Production of food on a large scale has been carried on for 
some centuries, but raising food for the use of others to be 
sold them for gain is not so old. With this has developed 
food-transportation, storage, commerce. The early search and 
strife for food and the later producing of it have passed for 
most of humanity into simply purchasing food. 

Food-production for commercial distribution occupies many 
workers. Food industry that manufactures such foods as flour 
and sugar, and prepares such as cereals and canned foods of 
all kinds also engages many workers, as do too, all the proc- 
esses of handling food not only in transportation but com- 
mercially in markets. 

Science as it is known to-day has been developed within this 
century. For not more than fifty years has it been even some- 
what generally understood and only now at all popularly known. 
Eons of life, ages of human development, and centuries of 
mental effort to understand the workings of nature preceded 
the scientific enlightenment of this age. Rapid movement is 
now everywhere made to use in living what is being learned. 
This is leading to changes that alter human life and affect 
the ways of living. 

The study of food is one of the most recent, also most far- 
reaching effects of science upon human health. Human growth 
can be furthered by understanding living. The reproduction 
of nature's products and effects is more and more attempted 
artificially and more and more nearly approached, yet the re- 
action of the human body to artificial foods is not usually the 
same as to natural. This requires that the difference between 
the two be further studied and eliminated, or the use of natu- 
ral foods be continued, if health, vigor, growth are to be pro- 
moted by food. 

CIRCLE OF HUMAN LIFE 131 



FOOD-SOURCES ^^^ PRODUCTION 

Where food is to be found and how it is obtained has, it 
was seen, changed from age to age. First, it was only where 
nature brought it forth spontaneously ; such products are 
called indigenous. In early times those foods were used that 
were found growing wherever food was needed. Only primi- 
tive life knew so simple a method of nourishing humanity. 
Food was then limited to what was growing and as it grew. 

Later humanity ate what it could grow wherever it lived. 
Food was then limited to what could be produced at hand. 
Since only what would grow naturally was then available, bar- 
renness or fertility of soil determined what diet would be. 

As humanity passed into more peaceable living and found it- 
self living more fully over the surface of the earth in all climes 
and growing into interworking communication, it learned 
what grew everywhere. It has brought what grows from 
where it grows best to where it can be most used. This has 
extended transportation of food, with consequent storage of it. 
Variety in diet has thus been increased ; freshness of food has 
been greatly decreased. More persons have become engaged 
in handling food than in producing it. Food has thus entered 
into the realm of profit as well as nourishment of humanity. 

Science, in its study of food and feeding, first looked at what 
happened with animals and tried to see what could be done 
further for them. Recently science has been investigating the 
food-needs and food-possibilities for humanity. How the con- 
ditions that produce fertility can be effected where barrenness 
prevails is increasingly studied. As this is understood, it is used 
to bring more abundant and more varied food from the earth 
wherever there is human life in need of it. Science-direction 
and human work can now usually produce variety in food at 
hand. It is thus that freshness of food is insured. 

132 ' FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



PREPARATION t^J^ FOOD PRACTICES 

Preparation of food has developed as has production. Like 
food-production, food-preparation is now studied. The methods 
of early times and those of every land are now more generally 
known and practiced. Many methods arising where a food so 
grows as to be a chief article of diet are carried with it as the 
people that first used it move from place to place, or as it is trans- 
ported or more extensively cultivated, so more widely eaten. 

Most early methods were developed by life-experience in pre- 
paring food. These are now found by scientific experiment to 
be ways of treating food-materials which make food not only 
more palatable but also usually more digestible and nutritious. 
Cooking — the application of dry or moist heat to food — 
changes different foods differently. Heat tends to break-up 
and render tender vegetable fiber, whereas it toughens animal. 
Prolonged slow cooking of grains and rapid slight cooking of 
tender meats have always been practiced, because these foods 
when thus cooked seemed better. Science has now learned why. 

Much that science has learned about the exact effect of dif- 
ferent methods of treating different foods, together with the 
tendency toward factory production of all products needed for 
human consumption, has led to extensive preparation of food 
outside of the home. As the storage of food arose with the 
general transportation of it, so the preservation of food has 
arisen, likewise the practice of factory preparation. The advan- 
tage claimed for transported food has been variety of food every- 
where at all seasons with less labor for the consumer ; this is 
claimed also for factory-prepared food. The disadvantage of the 
former, namely decreased freshness, is the disadvantage of the 
latter. The distinct danger of each will be discussed elsewhere. 

Food-transportation makes more food-traders than produ- 
cers. Factory preparation decreases the preparers of food. 

LIVING — INDUSTR Y— COMMERCE 133 



FOOD-SUPPLY 



NOURISHMENT 



Home gardens and home cooking were once usual. They 
are now less common. Both are to be encouraged to provide 
fresh and wholesome food. Only in the country is the food- 
supply of the family now within the direct control of the home. 
Even there some foods come partially prepared. But selection 
of food still remains a home occupation. All need therefore 
to know in what condition food needs to be. 

The industrial arms of society now bring much of the food 
a family eats from the farm and market through the factory 
and shop. What they bring and how they bring it is of im- 
portance to all ; all are consumers. Many simply market food 
that others produce. More producers are needed. 

In school all are now learning to be more fully self-helpful 
in all ways. How to care for one's self in living and how to 
produce what is needed for life are beginning to be taught 
everywhere. Much can now be known about human needs 
and how different communities meet these. Knowing what 
food is and does is an important part of such learning, be- 
cause it is thus one knows what should be eaten and where 
and how to obtain it, prepare it, and use it. 

Humanity is discovering what grows everywhere in the 
earth, water, air. What humanity can use for food is being 
eaten. What different foods do when eaten is being studied 
by science and learned by humanity. 

A seed buried in the earth becomes a plant. Something has 
happened to that seed ; usually some one has taken some care 
of it. Many plants are eaten as food. Something further then 
happens ; the plant becomes food-energy and furthers life in 
other ways. The adult that eats suitable food can work and 
be strong. 

Humanity could not live if it did not eat. 

134 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




J. M. Dent and Company 



AN ITALIAN KITCHEN 
From Janet Ross's " Leaves from a Tuscan Kitchen." 




NURTURE ±dJ& HUMAN HEALTH 



Health is usually assumed as the natural state of humanity. 
In reality human health comes only by humanity's working 
with nature to keep the natural processes of physical living 
effectively active. To do this one must know what these are 
and what changes them. The use of such knowledge in liv- 
ing is health-nurture. Caring for life so it is wholesome and 
nourishing the body so it is well secure health to humanity. 

Wholesome food and pure water and air ; alternate rest and 
exercise ; sanitary environment and hygienic habits ; health- 
ful clothing and housing ; developing occupation and elevating 
recreation ; human intercourse and community interests, — are 
all factors in producing enduring health. Proper adjustment 
of these to each other and for each person's needs is the 
problem of procuring health. Usually this is done without 
much consciousness that health demands attention. But if 
neglected, disastrous results ensue. No one is especially aware 
of health when he has it, but when gone it becomes one's chief 
concern. Time is saved and strength insured by making 
health-giving practices the habits of the body. 

In order that there may be health, the supplies to the body 
— food, water, air — must be provided through informed 
intelligence. To learn what food is and does leads into learn- 
ing how the body lives, and what it needs in order to live in 
health and grow into' maturing power. Only thus can the 
person lead a developing and fully useful life. 

Nature supplies heat, light, air, water, as it does food. But 
these all need adjustment to human life if they are to further 
rather than destroy it. Humanity survives by adjusting its 
environment to its needs. Freeing surroundings of ill influ- 
ences and reenforcing all health-giving agencies make an 
environment of health-aids in which humanity can develop. 

LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 135 



CLEAN FOOD ^M^ CLEANLINESS 

How foods are grown, handled, kept, prepared, used, 
served, affect human activity, health, growth. Different foods 
need different conditions. But all need special care in pro- 
duction and preservation until used. All require complete 
cleanliness as kept and handled from garden to table. 

A market that looks and is clean at all times is essential 
for health. Protection of food from dust of streets, from 
refuse of all kinds, from insects (as flies and ants), from ver- 
min (as mice and rats), and from diseased persons on farm, in 
market, at home, is a health-necessity. Dust, refuse, insects, 
vermin, ill persons, are disease-carriers. 

Exposure to disease usually weakens general health even 
when it does not cause definite disease. Resisting disease- 
influences requires of the body unnecessary effort. This is 
added to that of living and working. Contaminated food has 
been in contact with disease-sources ; it is one of the greatest 
dangers to life. Unsound food is food that is itself in un- 
wholesome condition ; it is a health-menace. Food is eaten 
to sustain life and promote living-activity. Its condition needs 
to be such that it can be a health-help, a strength-promoter, 
an energy-giver, and in childhood and youth also a growth-aid. 

Fresh, sound food, free itself from contamination, must be 
kept apart from all that is not. Any moldy bread or fruit 
makes all near it unsafe, as does also all food-waste or waste 
products of living (as sewage) or of industry (as factory-refuse). 
Receptacles, wrappers, carts, cars, all need to be clean and 
thoroughly aired. House, shop, factory refrigerators, utensils, 
elevators, must likewise be well-aired and cleaned. Hands too 
need to be clean ; all that handle food as produced, prepared, 
or eaten. Lack of cleanliness invites illness ; unsound food 
undermines health ; contaminated food causes disease. 

136 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



WHOLESOMENESS ^^^ PURE FOOD 

Cooking food destroys some disease-germs but not always 
all. It cannot be relied upon to purify impure food or freshen 
unsound food. Care alone, guided by science in production, 
preservation, transportation, manufacture, preparation, fur- 
nishes humankind with food that promotes human well-being. 

Pure food, pure water, pure air, are needed for wholesome 
living. All are possible when it is known what makes these 
pure and that their purity is as important to human life as 
their plentifulness. It is only as these are pure for all of a 
community that they can assuredly be for any one in it. 
Disease anywhere easily passes to food, and through food 
takes health from those to whom such food goes. 

Clean-appearing food may not always be pure food, as clear 
water may not be pure water. Pure food is clean food, so kept as 
to be sound without introducing non-food substances to pre- 
serve the food or improve its appearance without improving its 
quality, as does coating rice with glucose and talcum or using 
benzoate of soda in factory foods, such as canned tomatoes. 

Storage of food may preserve freshness of appearance 
without preventing deterioration in quality. Low temperatures 
may delay development of bacteria, yet not destroy them. 
Bacteria are then left to grow when the food comes from 
storage. Temperatures even so low as probably to free food 
from such danger still may not have made inactive soluble 
ferments natural in foods themselves. Such ferments can 
cause fermentation at the lowered temperatures of cold stor- 
age or refrigerated freight. Food that has been stored long 
or traveled far is often decayed by such ferments. Food may 
become so in the home refrigerator when not used promptly. 

Germ-life (bacteria and molds) abounds in refuse, vitiated 
air, contaminated water. These are disease-sources. 

LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 137 



ADULTERATED FOODS ^^^s LAW 

Adulteration of food is relatively modern. Home-grown, 
home-cooked food may lack purity through ignorance or 
neglect, but only industry-produced, factory-prepared, shop- 
served food is ever adulterated. An effort is always made to 
provide pure food when the purpose is human nutrition. 

Food laws purpose to protect humanity against abuse of food 
for financial advantage. What science finds harmful, law for- 
bids ; what is in doubt, law usually permits. But there is in- 
creasing scientific direction of all that affects the food of 
humanity ; also increasing law control. 

Substances known to be dangerous to life, if added to food 
for any purpose, would be adulterants. Such additions are, 
however, not usual. Substances not themselves foods are still 
used, which are introduced to improve appearance, such as 
chemicals to keep canned peas or beans green or to permit pro- 
longed keeping of food for gain. Law requires that the pres- 
ence of most of these be stated on food-labels, such as talcum 
coating rice. Better health results from not eating even sup- 
posedly harmless substances if they are not human foods. 

Lessening nutritive value of foods, as watering milk, is 
adulteration ; adding to weight would also be. This is now more 
rare. Coloring or thickening to pretend a quality not pos- 
sessed by the food is food-adulteration, too. Such is thicken- 
ing cream with gelatin or producing seeming freshness in stale 
food by chemicals, as change of color in meat, or preventing by 
chemicals natural changes in food, as the souring of milk. Sub- 
stitutions in commercially prepared foods as chicory in ground 
coffee, food laws prohibit ; also concealed substitution of a 
cheaper food-ingredient of equivalent use, even if itself not 
unwholesome, for a more expensive, such as glucose for sugar 
in candies, oleomargarine for butter, cottonseed-oil for olive-oil. 

1 38 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



ANNOUNCEMENT ^M^ FOOD-LABELS 

Food-labels come into important connection with human 
nourishment through industrial food-production, preserva- 
tion, preparation. When food was home-grown, cared for at 
home, and cooked there, what it was, what its condition 
was, and how it was changed for human use was naturally 
known, and the food itself was used in a relatively natural 
state. Avoid non-food ingredients. Overripe and overkept 
foods may endanger life and do undermine health. 

But with the extension of food products through ages of 
living and with the application of developing science and the 
dissemination of provisions used by humanity for its suste- 
nance, industry has entered the home significantly. It has 
become largely responsible for the supplies of the home. In- 
dustry is now expected to indicate what it is offering on the 
labels that law usually requires. Read food-labels. 

The facts may be accurately stated, yet the purchaser be 
misled. This is possible mainly because of ignorance on the 
part of the consumer that buys. The composition of a food 
may be similar to that of another valued food, still not be of 
like value as a human food. It is sometimes stated in adver- 
tisements that rice contains a percentage of food-building sub- 
stance (protein) equivalent to that in a pound of meat. But 
this does not make rice a food substitute for meat, because 
for the same weight they differ greatly in bulk when cooked. 
Rice expands, taking up water ; meat shrinks, losing water. 
Meat and rice also differ in the other constituents they con- 
tain ; these differ in their use in the body. Only knowledge 
of all the facts about foods insures a satisfactory choice. 

Labels state what law exacts and what will stimulate sales. 
Statement is required of addition to food, but not always of 
the quality and composition of the food. Know food laws. 

LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 139 



EFFORT TO SELL ^^%k ADVERTISEMENT 

J — ^ 

Effort to sell leads to advice from sellers. It takes form in 
advertisement. Such announcement seeks to secure the re- 
sponse desired, usually purchase of something sold for profit. 
As the purpose is to commend what is for sale, what can be 
said in favor of proffered products is said. All facts may not 
be published, due partly to lack of space, sometimes for other 
reasons too. Laws guarantee nothing ; they only require cer- 
tain conditions to be maintained. 

A manufacturer may state such requirements have been 
complied with and stop there or he may add what he thinks 
desirable to be known. Lentils are a chief article of diet of 
some European workers, as is often advertised. That does not, 
however, commend their like use where the dietary may be va- 
ried by freshly prepared foods as desirable themselves, as are 
peas and beans, especially if the lentils come canned. 

Artificially compounded foods may have only such constit- 
uents as are permitted by law, but if what these are and what 
they come from is not known, no one can be intelligently fed 
who uses them. That a food of unknown origin serves a 
cooking-purpose, as a fat that heats without burning, is not 
enough to know about any food. Science seeks to understand 
the secrets of nature ; these it discloses to humanity for its 
more competent living, not to compound secret foods for 
human consumption. What is not said in advertisements is 
often more important than what is. Ask for this too. 

" Pure food " as a trade term means only not adulterated 
in the eyes of the prevailing law. Legally, " pure food " is 
not a recommendation ; it is only a precaution against foods 
known to be unsafe ; it does not in itself make any food an 
essentially desirable human food. Desirable foods are legally 
pure, but also assuredly clean, wholesome, and nourishing. 

140 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



UNDERSTANDING =^fe ENDEAVOR TO SAVE 

Understanding what food is and does can prevent all food- 
dangers ; nothing else can. Such knowledge makes clear what 
is said about food ; nothing else does. As science has in- 
creased what is known, learning about living has become more 
complex, but it is also more interesting and of greater value to 
human life. The necessity to know how to live wholesomely 
has increased with modern civilization. Human development 
depends upon the life-supplies' being those human life itself 
demands for living, growing, working. Food-production needs 
to be of the provisions human living can flourish upon, and 
distribution such as will reach all humanity. 

Saving by buying what will not nourish costs human health, 
efficiency, and sometimes life itself. Living requires what 
fosters life ; this known, secured, and utilized builds up hu- 
manity by insuring to it health, growth, energy, capability. 
What is said about anything that is to be used to sustain 
human life must be tested by what it will actually do to 
humanity. Food has just one human use, that is, to nourish 
the body. What foods should be used is determined by their 
actual usefulness in the living-economy of the body itself. 
Nothing is saved by trying to use what does not do what the 
body needs to have done for it by food. 

It is the complete utilization of the foods that are really 
nourishing which is the only saving that can be practiced with 
profit to human life. Desirable foods are not all equally expen- 
sive nor of the same expense at all seasons. Undesirable foods 
used to save time, effort, or money are the most expensive to 
life and working-power. Choose the foods of greatest use to 
the body and use these fully. This is true saving, and the only 
safe saving, as is not the endeavor to save that might lead 
to practices that deprive humanity of needed nourishment. 

LIVING — INDUSTR Y— COMMERCE 141 



WHOLESOME FOODS h^& REGULATION 

Wholesome food is undiseased, uncontaminated, unadul- 
terated. Plants and animals that furnish human food need 
health themselves. For this they require themselves proper 
and plentiful food, fresh air, uncontaminated water, cleanli- 
ness of surroundings, protection from weather blights of cold 
or drought or violence, and intelligent care as they are pro- 
duced, transported, marketed, prepared, served. 

Plants poorly nourished make inferior food ; diseased 
plants make dangerous food. Poorly cared-for grain foods 
cause disease instead of furthering health. Quality of soils 
and science-methods of production are garden problems, but 
only as these are known and used to grow well plants can 
humanity be fed with wholesome vegetables. The part of the 
plant used for food and the way it is used determine some- 
what the care needed in growing and keeping it. 

Animals poorly fed and living under unsanitary conditions 
are not healthy, therefore cannot provide wholesome human 
food. Food-inspection is expected to regulate the condition 
of meats marketed. Not only diseased parts, but any part of 
an animal that is in any way diseased is unsafe for food. All 
meat eaten must be from undiseased animals and must not 
be stored for a long time. 

Freezing and thawing change foods undesirably. Sub- 
stances unfavorable to human life may be left in foods in 
which bacteria have grown, even after the bacteria are them- 
selves destroyed. Some germs only delay their development 
at low temperatures. Natural ferments change foods in un- 
propitious ways not readily revealed to the senses. Hence 
the necessity of scientific examination of foods that are trans- 
ported or stored and of legal regulation to procure a whole- 
some food-supply for humanity. 

142 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



SCIENTIFIC DIRECTION ^^fe MODIFICATION OF FOOD 

.a 

Natural state of food once meant as it grew wild ; it now 
means as food is cultivated. Many foods are now still further 
modified. Some are commonly used as food-ingredients, as 
are sugar, fats, grain flours. 

Scientific examination of all foods and food-modifications 
is necessary. This is not simply to detect impurity. Effort to 
make food finer as a refinement of civilized life does not 
always produce a better food-product. Polishing rice has re- 
sulted in depriving it of some salts it naturally contains and 
the body needs. These withheld endanger health. What nat- 
ural elements of food are left in, or what are taken out, affects 
significantly human health. What is taken out of food in 
manufacture is as important as what is put in. Law recognizes 
this less, but human health is no less affected by it, even when 
the cause is not known. Science finds facts ; law directs acts. 

Grains naturally contain some substances the body needs 
which are so arranged physically in grains that to keep them 
in food is to keep also coarse particles that the human body 
cannot digest. Even its opportunity to digest other food may 
be somewhat lessened by the presence of such particles, for 
these may quickly pass through the digestive tract and carry 
with them all food present in it, even that which needs to be 
retained for use. Bran in flour serves a health-purpose by 
aiding in freeing the body of food-waste. It is not itself 
nourishing. Food-scientists now doubt whether the salts as- 
sociated with it are released for food-use in the body. 

Science studies food and food-effects ; what it finds it tells. 
Industry is more and more expected to do what human life 
needs done. Communities more and more select scientifically 
equipped persons to direct food-production in the interest of 
human well-being. 

LIVING — IND USTR Y— COMMERCE 143 



CANNED FOOD 



iJ.t4 



INDUSTRY 



Canning food was originally practiced to secure variety by 
keeping thus for out-of -season use such foods as could not be 
kept either fresh or dried. It has been extended in order to 
prepare food easily and quickly. Scientific canning may pro- 
duce safe food. Canned food is, however, usually somewhat 
less desirable than freshly prepared and is rarely so palatable. 
Different foods differ in desirability when canned. Many lose 
their flavor. A few though changed are still very acceptable ; 
tomatoes are, when good tomatoes have been used. 

Dried vegetables, as beans and peas, though still used, as 
they should be, are less usual than of old. They are largely 
superseded by canned foods, as canned are beginning to be by 
transported. Transporting foods from all climes brings them 
in their natural state at most seasons. Dried foods lose water 
mainly ; canned, some flavor ; transported wilt and are often 
open to contamination. Delayed use of any type has dangers. 
Garden freshness brings health. 

Preserved meats usually contain some addition of natural 
or artificial preservatives, as meat is not easily kept by cooking 
and sealing. It is dried, smoked, salted, corned, pickled, cov- 
ered with oil, refrigerated, or frozen. 

Dangers of canned foods are deterioration in quality and, if 
kept long, possible formation of undesirable substances ; hence 
the advisability of dating all canned foods. Law does not as 
yet require this. Acid foods in tin may form dangerous com- 
pounds if carelessly canned, overkept, or permitted to stand 
in cans after opened. Canning makes possible many inferior 
food-substitutes that high seasoning conceals ; hence the neces- 
sity of using only reliable brands. Overripe fruits and vege- 
tables and undesirable meats can be sold canned which would 
not otherwise be salable. 

144 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



PRODUCTS ^p^ MANUFACTURED FOOD 

Food products have rarely been used simply as taken from 
nature. Fresh vegetables, fruits, and milk are the only com- 
mon foods now so used ; even these are also eaten in many 
prepared forms. Canned foods are usually cooked and sealed. 
Sometimes they have, however, simply had the air excluded, 
as blueberries sealed in water, for use at sea, where they are 
taken to prevent disease caused by lack of food-salts. 

Manufactured foods are not all cooked or canned. Some 
are only milled, as are most grains that are used as flours or 
meals. Grains must be in wholesome condition themselves, be 
ground under sanitary conditions, and kept clean and dry, to 
produce health-giving foods. 

Originally only such foods were sold manufactured as would 
not otherwise be edible. Sugar and molasses have so long been 
used as manufactured foods that they are commonly accepted 
as natural in this state and the processes used to produce them 
are generally unfamiliar. Butter and cheese, though once 
home-produced, are now usually bought without thought as to 
their derivation. Jams and jellies from fruits, and soups from 
meats and vegetables, appear now as manufactured products 
for sale, but these are still also often home-made. 

Foods of concealed composition are, as noted, beginning to 
appear. These must satisfy law standards for food. That a 
substance has the composition and characteristics that serve a 
given food-purpose does not essentially make it an acceptable 
article of diet. Oils made from food-refuse and called " salad " 
oil make little appeal to those that know their origin. Even 
cottonseed-oil needs to be known and sold as itself rather 
than as " salad " oil charged for as olive-oil. 

Use food of which the composition can be entirely known and the 
process of its manufacture fully seen. 

LIVING — INDUSTR Y— COMMERCE 145 



BUYING FOOD =^*?k ECONOMY 

All foods are beginning to be sold by weight. This is most 
desirable. Food of good quality bought thus enables one to 
know accurately what is obtained, also to learn more easily 
how much is eaten. It is advisable in buying to know what 
different quantities of different foods weigh ; as, 

i pk. of peas weighs about 6 lb., and 3 lb. yield about 1 lb. shelled. At 
50^ a peck they then cost 25^ per pound shelled. (This is buying at the 
highest price and in small quantity.) Canned peas cost 1 50 to 30^ (accord- 
ing to quality) and weigh 1 lb. Do fresh or canned peas cost more ? 

Many foods are usually sold by box or basket at a stated 
price for all. Too frequently these are not of even quality or 
degree of freshness. Fresh and stale food should not be sold 
mixed ; they are not of the same value. Even when sold at 
an averaged price, such mixing is undesirable. They do not 
cook evenly. Fresh string-beans, for example, may cook in 
20 to 30 min. Those traveled and held require i\ to 3 hours. 

Such practices as using sound, ripe tomatoes for top rows 
on boxes of those less acceptable should be discouraged. It is 
not thus that a good food-supply at fair cost is insured to a com- 
munity. Packing food in movable trays (paper or other) aids in 
inspection. Food-quality always needs to be known. See what 
is bought ; buy what is good ; keep food well and use fully. 

Some foods may be home-stored if house space is available 
at suitable temperature with pure atmosphere and sanitary care. 
Flour is desirable by the barrel when it can be kept dry and 
away from all animal life. Potatoes may be stored by the bar- 
rel for winter use when they can be kept cool and dark, with 
air excluded. Few foods will, however, keep in hot apartment- 
houses. Though small buying is higher and to be avoided, 
wasteful use is no more economical. Three for 25 cents is not 
wise, saving buying, if only one is used or is superior. 

146 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



INVESTIGATION ^g^s TESTING FOOD 

Home testing of food-quality is still somewhat useful. But to 
insure satisfactory quality and full quantity more adequate com- 
munity regulation of the quality of all food for all of humanity 
is the modern necessity. It is well to know that butter when 
picre boils quietly. But when all butter is sold for what it is, 
it will not need to be tested after it is bought. Testing should 
precede placing food on sale. When on sale the facts of the 
test should be stated as commonly and clearly as the price. 

Selling food for its real quality and its actual qtiantity needs 
to be made the universal practice. Human life and efficiency 
require that such care be exercised in obtaining human food. 
Chicory in coffee can be detected at home. " Broken " eggs 
in bakery-products cannot be detected by home tests. Yet the 
human body experiences the disadvantage of consuming unfit 
food. Only investigation of raw food-materials reveals many 
modern food-deteriorations that entail illness not always easily 
traced to this cause. Inferior ingredients cannot make superior 
foods or even reliable. Supervision of what is used by those 
that know what should be eaten, will alone make compounded 
foods safe and wholesome. Intelligent use cannot be made 
of foods of concealed origin, manufacture, or composition. 

What cannot be tested, as " broken " eggs, in food, together 
with what cannot be known by the consumer, as that a food oil 
has been shipped in a kerosene-barrel, the community must 
be responsible for preventing. Otherwise the discovery is left 
to be made by the illness of those so fed. All that know the 
need (and all should know it) must aid in securing the kind 
of investigation and supervision of food-preparation that the 
extension of food-industry now makes necessary, because home 
testing cannot reach the dangers, and human digestion cannot 
deal with products not digestible by the body. 

LIVING— INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 147 



ARTIFICIAL FOODS =^*^f SCIENCE 

Natural foods were originally simply nature-produced. By 
the aid of humankind cultivated and manufactured foods have 
become natural as foods in so far as they have become usual 
and humankind has become adjusted to their use. All modifi- 
cation of food to improve it as human food is to be encouraged, 
but is to be distinguished .from changes in foods to increase 
profit rather than to improve their nourishing properties. 

The tendency to-day in artificial changes in food is com- 
mercial rather than nutritive. Knowledge of food and its use 
to the human body should direct both the selection of food and 
the regulation of its production. 

Some scientists claim that artificially prepared substances 
that are chemically the same as food-substances are satisfactory 
food-substitutes, and that they may be made even more free 
from substances undesirable in food than are natural foods. 
Others think not. But all are agreed that such is not yet the 
practice, and that science has as yet been used more in the 
service of profit than in purifying food. Constructed foods 
are now on the market ; such are some fruit-flavors. 

The use of by-products of manufacture for food has intro- 
duced cottonseed-oil, glucose, and other substances that chemi- 
cally are the equivalent of foods long in use. When made of 
wholesome materials and by means of sanitary processes such 
foods are not objectionable, though they rarely are as palatable 
as are foods more directly produced by nature. They often 
are not so generally digestible. 

Foods constructed to deceive, through a desire to save ex- 
pense in order to increase profit, may be dangerous to health. 
Jams made of fruit-pulp discarded from jelly-making and col- 
ored artificially cannot be nutritious nor can catsup made of 
woody-fiber vegetables and colored red with aniline dyes. 

148 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMMERCE ^ds^fe CHEMICALS IN FOOD 

■IS — —>, 

Preservatives are old in use and are used to keep food as 
natural as possible. Originally this was practiced for out-of- 
season use of seasonally produced food, where the supply of 
food was limited. The substances used were those also used 
for condiments, as vinegar, alcohol, spices, salt. Smoking too 
was practiced ; it preserves, because smoke contains creosote 
that is a germicide and that is so used as a drug. 

Why preservatives did preserve food was long unknown. 
But with the discovery of bacteria came a knowledge of the 
cause of decomposition that is generally recognized as putre- 
faction or decaying of food. To overcome such changes they 
were studied. It has been found that only a few kinds of 
bacteria cause these changes. Extremes of temperature (see 
Sterilization, p. 152) are unfavorable to the growth of such 
bacteria, as are also many chemicals. 

Modern chemical preservatives, refrigeration, sterilization, 
are used mainly for their effect upon these putrefactive bacte- 
ria, in order to prevent unpleasant tastes and odors. Some of 
the chemicals used are borax or boric acid, benzoate of soda, 
formaldehyde, sulphites, hydrogen peroxid. None of these 
are foods. Some that have been found not to injure healthy 
adults have affected young animals seriously, and are not ad- 
vised even when not forbidden by law. For children, invalids, 
and the aged they may be perilous ; for any one they may 
cause kidney-deterioration, so later disease. Sulphites, used to 
make meat red, cause hemorrhages of different organs. Hydro- 
gen peroxid is not considered unsafe ; when added to food 
it breaks up quickly into simply water and oxygen. But oxygen 
as it is being thus freed from chemical combination is particu- 
larly destructive to bacterial life ; also to tissues, therefore is 
claimed by some to affect unfavorably the food-quality. 

LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 149 



FOOD-REGULATION ^M^ GOVERNMENT 

With widely distributed production, transportation, storage, 
preservation, and factory preparation of food, keeping food has 
grown to be an important problem that needs to be solved for 
all humanity. Fortunately both science and government are 
seriously concerning themselves with this problem. The inter- 
pretation of the laws regulating the practices in the preserva- 
tion of food is also coming under closer consideration. 

The attorney general of the United States is quoted as say- 
ing in a specific instance regarding food-purity : 

If minute quantities of nitrites may be added to flour, of boric acid 
to eggs, of chromate of lead to the coffee-bean, of sulphate of copper to 
peas, of arsenic or lead to baking-powder, of Martin's yellow to maca- 
roni, of wood-alcohol to flavoring-extracts, so long as it is not probable 
that enough in each case has been added possibly to injure health of some 
one, then the statute is incapable of enforcement. If actual injury must 
be shown, what standard of resistance is to be adopted ? Will it be that 
of the sickly infant or that of the strong man ? 

Bleaching and dyeing foods to improve their appearance 
as well as preservatives, bring into foods substances foreign to 
them, which do not always affect favorably either the foods 
or the persons that consume foods so treated. Sulphites are 
used to bleach asparagus and other light-colored vegetables 
and fruits, also flours and sugar. 

Dyes may be those natural in vegetable food which have 
been extracted to be so used. But food-dyes may also be ani- 
line dyes made from coal-tar products. None of the latter are 
foods. Some are considered harmless ; others are known to 
be poisonous. The government forbids use of the latter. Col- 
oring food is to-day common. Confections are generally arti- 
ficially colored ; even canned tomatoes have been found to be. 

Reliable sources of supply, scientifically regulated, are essen- 
tial for safe foods, especially when preserved, bleached, or dyed. 

150 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




CARE i^=3^ FOOD-DETERIORATION 



Pleasing appearance in food needs to be effected through 
care of the product and not by artificially concealing its defects 
or by rendering the food itself defective. Manufactured foods 
are open to both dangers. Graham flour, in retaining bran, 
needs more special care to be clean than other flours that are 
essentially free from all scourings. 

Rice when polished loses salts without which the body may 
develop nervous disorder of a serious nature (beriberi). Where 
rice is a chief article of diet, polishing it may become a men- 
ace ; it is always'a danger. Rice is, however, not to be avoided, 
but to be secured unpolished and uncoated. It is its quality, 
not appearance, that affects human health. Corn meal, a com- 
mon, nutritious, cheap food, may cause devitalizing disease 
(through malnutrition) when it is produced or ground under 
unsanitary conditions or kept under such. 

Ignorance or neglect may make foods unwholesome. Craft 
in commerce may, too. Whatever the cause of unfit food — 
be it non-food preservatives, unsafe dyes, crude by-products, 
artificial additions for appearance or as concealed substitutions 
in food, or chemically constructed foods instead of nature- 
grown — in so far as it is unfit it cannot nourish. Such food 
is more than valueless ; it is a dangerous food-burden. 

Bacteria in food cause general deterioration and often spe- 
cific disease. Meat and milk change so easily that only the 
greatest care keeps them safe foods. Water is open to so many 
sources of contamination that to insure its purity requires great 
care. Fats are less readily affected by bacteria, so do not de- 
teriorate as easily. Green vegetables are more apt to carry bac- 
teria of the soil and dust than themselves to deteriorate through 
the presence of these. Starchy vegetables uncooked do not 
readily support bacterial life, so do not deteriorate promptly. 

LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 151 



STERILIZATION =^gf PURIFYING FOOD 

■i ii "? 

Sterile food is food free from bacteria of all kinds. Sterili- 
zation of food is therefore destroying all bacteria. Dry heat 
at 35o°-h F., steam (moist heat) under pressure, and some 
chemicals will kill bacteria. The chemicals that will do this 
would, however, render a food unfit for human use, so heat 
must be relied upon to sterilize food. The process of render- 
ing food sterile by heat is known as sterilization. The degree 
of heat necessary may decrease the palatability of many foods, 
also even the nutritiousness of some. Sterilized milk is less 
palatable than raw ; fats raised to high temperature decom- 
pose ; sugar changes its form. But such foods as can be steri- 
lized are thus made safe, if not reexposed after being sterilized. 

To prevent destruction of a food and yet its deterioration, 
less intense heat is used. This, however, only checks bacterial 
growth without destroying the bacteria that may develop later 
under more favorable conditions for their life. Freezing acts 
similarly. Bacteria that cause human disease may resist 
effectively extremes of temperature, either high or low, moist 
or dry. It is therefore only such as affect the food itself 
(putrefactive bacteria), not the person directly (as do patho- 
genic or disease-producing bacteria), which cooking and freez- 
ing food destroy or even significantly delay in their activity. 

Keeping food clean lessens contamination ; cooking it usu- 
ally decreases the germs it contains ; cooling it delays its 
decomposition. Food requires continuous freedom from con- 
tamination. Even when food is to be sterilized, as in can- 
ning, it is still important to keep it sound and otherwise free 
from contamination. Food in which bacteria have grown is 
not freed of the effects of their growth by later sterilization. 
Ptomaines, for instance, are chemical substances formed by 
bacterial growth. 

152 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



PRESERVING FOOD d^skt REFRIGERATION 

Refrigeration of food is its preservation by lowering the 
temperature below that favorable for bacterial growth. Though 
this temperature varies for different kinds of bacteria, it is 
generally true that freezing or temperatures near it are un- 
propitious for bacteria. The disease-producing bacteria that 
attack. persons for food grow best at the temperature of the 
body (98|° F.). But some of these have spore-forms that re- 
sist destruction by anything except extremely high heat con- 
tinued for some time, or chemicals dangerous to human life. 
Frozen or refrigerated foods may therefore contain such bacte- 
ria in live form, that will develop when taken into the human 
body. Hence the imperative necessity of keeping foods free 
from contamination which are to be preserved through freez- 
ing or refrigeration. Impure water does not form pure ice. 

The bacteria that attack foods for their own food (that is, 
putrefactive bacteria that cause food-decomposition), though 
also affected by cold as are the disease-producing (pathogenic) 
bacteria, are also not assuredly destroyed by cold. Some putre- 
factive bacteria remain somewhat active at low temperatures 
and cause food-deterioration during this form of preservation. 
The refreezing of frozen mixtures, such as ice-creams, or the 
use of such foods for food-ingredients when melted, as melted 
ice-cream in cake, is inadvisable and may even be dangerous. 
Freezing and thawing may change the composition of some 
foods. It usually increases the probability of prompt decay, 
even when it does not cause partial decomposition. Some sub- 
stances, known as unorganized ferments, remain active at low 
temperatures at which food is kept ; these may change the 
composition of the food undesirably. 

Cold storage in market and transportation and refrigeration 
in the house are alike in principle, though the devices differ. 

LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 153 



FOOD-QUALITY SMJlJ SUMMARY 

: — aa 

Vegetables in season, animals in health, are wholesome 
natural foods. Scientific care that seeks food-preservation 
and preparation that secures wholesome human foods and not 
simply products passable for sale, aid in nourishing human- 
kind effectively. Food-deteriorations and dangers are increas- 
ingly prevented by food-inspection and law-regulation through 
scientifically trained community-commissions. 

All food must be sound to be safe. Knowledge protects, 
for care must be intelligent to prevent exposure of food, so 
wasting it and starving the body or endangering health. 

The effects of decomposition do not disappear when the 
food (as decomposed fish) is heated or frozen. Dried foods, 
though they do not foster activity of bacteria, because most 
germs require moisture, will permit later development so 
soon as moistened for use. 

All foods do not equally provide food for bacteria. Cane-sugar, salt, 
oil, and food-acids, as vinegar, are less favorable to their growth than are 
other foods. 

Canned food gives variety where the natural food-supply is neces- 
sarily limited. Every one needs pure, wholesome food all the time. 
Children and invalids 7nust have it. 

Ptomaine poisoning from hotel fare (Dr. Schrumpf 's warning). As- 
paragus, canned goods, beans, may cause ptomaine poisoning unless 
in the best condition. Reserving food increases the danger. Fish 
should not be eaten at inland hotels in warm weather, as it is difficult 
to keep it in proper condition for use. Chronic ptomaine poisoning 
may result from eating it. All high seasoning of food is to be avoided, 
as it conceals food-quality. Fresh food material is to be preferred to 
length of menu. A continued intake of minute amounts of ptomaines 
causes loss of appetite, flatulency, con- 
stipation ; or palpitations, dizziness ; or 
nervous restlessness, headache, insomnia, 
depression. 

154 






OBSERVATIONS ^^^ FOOD-DANGERS 

Many chemicals harmful in large quantity are used in small. 
Though ill results may not be detected, there is reason to doubt 
whether constant consumption of even small quantities is not 
ultimately harmful, especially as those that eat any foods so 
treated usually eat many. Such food-dangers are to be avoided. 

Dangerous residues in food of chemicals added, or of any created by 
bacterial life, and deterioration of food-quality through the effect of these, 
are the dangers of commercial food-preservation and food-storage and 
of home delay in use of food. 

Different kinds of food need to be kept apart. Some give 
off odors ; fruits do. Others absorb odors ; milk and butter 
do, and have their own flavors destroyed thus. Cold compart- 
ments need to be aired and kept completely clean. 

Though cooking usually destroys bacteria, cooked starchy 
foods such as potatoes are decomposed more readily than un- 
cooked, as cooked (not raw) starch readily supports germ-life. 

Refrigeration retards decay and reinstates appearance of 
freshness. Cooled air (about 40 F.) is circulated around 
whatever is to be preserved from decomposition, or kept fresh, 
or freshened by cold. See pp. 220-221. 

Ripening of fruit is affected by heat, moisture, air, and light. By con- 
trol of these it may be hastened or delayed. Some fruits, as apples, may 
be kept in ripened condition for a number of months. Others, as bananas, 
may be stored green and allowed to ripen in storage. This is possible 
because many of the changes in ripening are carried on by unorganized 
ferments (or enzymes) in the fruit. If this is too long 
continued, the overripe fruit becomes unfit food. Fruits 
in storage are living. They consume 
oxygen and produce carbon dioxid. 
As this happens, part of their carbohy- 
drate is oxidized and heat is generated. 

155 





FOOD-COST 



jm 



AMERICAN MARKETS 



Average Cost of Food per Working Max's Family 





N. Atlantic 


S. Atlantic 


N. Central 


S. Central 


Western 


U.S.A. 


1897 
1907 


385 


$271 
341 


$289 

3^7 


$266 
341 


$286 
358 


$299 

374 



(Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1910) 



(According to geographical divisions) 



Purchasing Power of Weekly Wage per Worker 

Decreased 1.5% from 1897 to 1907 and was .9% less than in 1906 
(measured by retail prices of food). 



Increase in Wholesale and Retail Prices from 1897 to 1907 

Wholesale food-prices averaged 1 higher in 1907 than 1897 
Retail food-prices averaged \ higher in 1907 than 1897 



Specific Increase in Retail Prices of Staple Foods 





Price In- 


Relative 


NCREASE IN 


Price In- 






crease, 


1910 over Average for 


crease, 






1 897- 1 907 


1890-1899= 100 


1 897- 1 907 






% 


% 


% 


% 




Eggs 


507 


*37-7 


1 1 6.8 


17.2 


Milk 


Chicken 


39-8 


i3 J -4 


120.6 


20.4 


Beef, steaks 


Butter 


37-i 


127.6 


1 19. 1 


18.7 


Roasts 


Cheese 


39-8 


123.2 


1 1 4. 1 


!3- J 


Salted 


Lard 


49.4 


134-2 


125. 


25.1 


Veal 


Pork, fresh 


45- 


142.5 


120.6 


20.8 


Fish (fresh) 


Salt (bacon) 


G1.5 


157-3 


121.6 


27.7 


Fish (salt) 


Salt (dry) 


45.1 


141.2 


96. 


4.1 


Sugar 


Ham 


33 l 


130.7 


107.7 


10.2 


Molasses 


Mutton 


30.6 


1 30. 1 


104.5 


7-3 


Vinegar 


Potatoes 


29.7 


120.6 


io 5-3 


6.9 


Tea 


Cornmeal 


40.4 


131.6 


95- 


•4 


Coffee 


Beans (dry) 


29.8 


118.8 


108.5 


10.8 


Rice 


Apples 


41.9 


124.6 


104.5 


4-5 


Bread 


(Evaporated) 






117.7 


12.8 


Flour 








88.4 


4.9 


Prunes 



(Corn meal, in 1907 production and consumption larger than either before or since, yet price 
increased 40% over 1897 and 31.6% over average in 1890-1899) 



156 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



LIVING-COMMODITIES 



PRICES — DUTIES 

Increase in Wholesale Prices of Living-Commodities 

(Relative price as compared with average for 1890- 1899) 







Increase 




Increase 










in 1910 
over Year 


1910 


IN 1910 

over Year 










Given 




Given 








% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 




Farm-products 








12 5-4 


487 


86.4 


(1898) Metals, 


(1896) 


78-3 


II0.2 


164.6 








implements 


Food (1896) 


83.8 


53-6 


128.7 


128.5 


69-5 


90.4 


(1897) Build- 


Drugs, chemi- 














ing-lumber 


cals (1895) 


87.9 


33-i 


117. 


in. 6 


24-3 


8q.S 


(1897) Furnish- 


Fuel, lighting 














ings (house) 


(1894) 


91.4 


357 


125.4 


1 33- 1 


45- 6 


91.4 


(1896) Miscel- 


Cloths, cloth- 














lanies 


ing (1S97) 


91. 1 


35-8 


123-7 


131.6 


46.7 


897 


(1897) All com- 
modities 



(All data given or used in computations are from Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1910) 

Importations and % Duty on Other Articles than Food 



In 1911 


Value 


Average Rate 
of Duty 


Value 


In 191 i 






% 


% 






Cotton 


$64,270,892 


5571 


58.34 


$11,431,652 


China 


Wool 


18,791,076 


8772 


55-12 


6,639,142 


Glass 


(Unmanufactured) 


29,572,259 


42.20 


29.13 


15,236,699 


Paper 


Silk 


31,965,625 


5347 


38.85 


52,692,318 


Fibers 


Furs 


8,058,688 


26.24 


9.94 


3,606,042 


(Unmanufactured) 


Jewelry, stones 


32,990,527 


14.18 


32-35 


14,934,247 


Leather 


Liquors 






22.22 


1,958,583 


Paints 


(wines, spirits) 


18,546,026 


89.85 


11.76 


35,657,953 


Woods 


Tobacco 


29,788,180 


87.82 


35- 


8,158,941 


Toys 








3*- 6 3 


22,119753 


Iron and steel 



(Compare duties and importation above, also p. 158. For domestic production see pp. 186-187) 



United States in 191: 



Europe 

North America 
South America 



Exports 



% 
63.84 

22.3 
5-32 



Imports 



% 

50-3 

20. 

11.96 



1.78 



Exports 



4.17 
3.22 
1-15 



Asia 

Oceania 

Africa 



LIVING— INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 



157 



FOOD-CONSUMPTION 



fflrH 



EXCHANGE 



Typical foods i?i quantities produced, itnported, exported, consumed. 
Domestic Products 





Produced 
(Bushels) 


Imported 
(Bushels) 


Consumed 
(Bushels) 


Exported (Bushels) 


Ex- 
ported 


Corn 










% 


1907 


2,927,414,091 


10,184 


2,841,058,047 


86,368,228 


2-95 


1911 


2,886,260,000 


52,569 


2,820,698,047 


65,614,522 


2.27 


Wheat 












1907 


735,260,970 


590,092 


588,551,205 


1 46,700,42 5 (domestic) 
599,432 (foreign) 


J 9-95 


1911 


635,121,000 


1,142,558 


566,954,401 


565,809,240 (domestic) 
1,397 (foreign) 


10.91 



(Wheat exported in 1907, as grain \ +, as flour I — ; in 191 1, 3 + as grain, § — as flour) 

Foreign Products 





Imports 
(Pounds) 


Value 


Foreign Ex- 
ports (Lb.) 


Value 


Ave. 
Price 


Lb. Used 
Per Capita 


Tea 
1907 
1911 

Coffee 
1907 
1911 


86,368,490 
102,653,942 

986,595,923 

878,322,468 


#13,915,544 
17,613,569 

78,382,823 
90,949,963 


1,520,229 
3,287,366 

11,626,599 

8,457,003 


$207,094 
447,304 

1,293,184 
1,096,052 


l6.I^ 
17.2^ 

7.9^ 
10.3^ 


.96 
I.04 

II. 17 

9.27 



(Less coffee and more tea used in 1911 than 1907. Price of each rose, though both duty-free) 

Dutiable Articles of Food Imported for Consumption in 191 i 



In 1911 


Value 


Average Rate 
of Duty 


Value 


In 191 1 






% 


% 






Animals 


$3A9 l >°3° 


25.96 


31-35 


$9,266,094 


Vegetables 


Meats and 






35-03 


4,l63,H3 


Rice 


dairy-products 


11,261,639 


28.13 


53-95 


97,872,H7 


Sugar 


Fish 


12,915,830 


19.2 


36-7 


21,843,214 


Fruits and nuts 


Oils (not all food oils) 


12,307,223 


27.65 


3I.S6 


11,729,802 


Breadstuffs 


Drugs, dyes, and 












chemicals 


32,614,967 


22.07 









(Free-list under consideration for 19 13 includes cattle, meats, wheat, and flour, but only from 
countries extending same commercial privileges to the United States) 



158 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



IN FRANCE 



ffl?l 



FOOD-CONSUMPTION 



World-wide study of food-production, diet-habits, and food- 
needs has been in progress for the past two decades. Physi- 
ologists have been interesting themselves as never before in 
experimental study of human nutrition. General observa- 
tional study of the dietary of different nations has also be- 
come more widespread. 

It has been found that under the same conditions of liv- 
ing approximately the same food-constituents are consumed, 
and in the same relative amounts, the world over ; but they 
are often obtained from different foods in different lands 
according to the food-production of the various countries. 
In France, for instance, liberal use is made of bread. 

France has just concluded a study of the diet of its people. 

(Paris, France, for nearly 3,000,000 persons during 20 yrs. 
Computed by A. Gautier) 

FRENCH DAILY DIET (In grams; average from investigation noted above) 



Vegetable 


Animal 


Inorganic 


Bread 
420 


Green 
vegetables 

250 


Pota- 
toes 

IOO 


Cereals 
40 


Sugar 
40 


Fruits 
70 


Wines 
etc. 

43 2 


Meat 
200 


Eggs 
24 


Cheese 

8 


Butter 
and oil 

28 


Milk 
213 


Salt 
20 


Water 

95° 



Food-Constituents in the Foods Consumed 



Protein 


Fats 


Carbohydrates 


Calories (heat-energy units in foods) 


97 gm- 


5 s S m - 


418 gm. 


2500 + 



General Average Standard for Man at Moderate Work 



Protein 


Fats 


Carbohydrates 


Calories 


IOO gm. 


100 gm. 


300-350 gm. 


2500-2700 — 



Compare number of grams of food-constituents in French dietary with 
general standard. 



LIVING— HUMAN NUTRITION— FOOD-SCIENCE 



159 



FOOD-SCIENCE 



HTTFI 



HUMAN NUTRITION 



Sources — Production — Preparation in general 1 6 1 p 

Food-Study — Food in Combination — Food and Diet 1 62-3 
Food-Needs — Human Body — Food-Uses ^4-5 

Nutrition-Aids — Digestion — Digestion-Needs 1 66-7 

Diet-Science — Food Custom — Mixed Diet 168-9 

Scientific Diet — Food Habits — Diet Facts 1 70-1 

Building Foods — Diet- Elements — Energy- Foods 1 72-3 
Digestion Foods — Diet- Factors — Protective Foods 174-5 
Foods Concentrated : Natural — Commercial 1 76-7 

Life and Food — Kinds of Food — Living and Food 1 78-9 
Seasonal Diet — Diet-Composition — Daily Diet 1 80-1 
Age and Work — Food and Income 182-3 

Population — Age — Race — Nationality 1 84-5 

Food- Production — Quantity — Value — Availability 1 86-7 
Food-Composition — Combination — Tabulation 1 88-93 

Menus : Types — Adjustments — Construction 1 94-5 

Digestibility — Seasoning Food — Palatability 196-9 

Life Food — Health — Energy — Work Food 200-1 

Child-Food — Living — Growing — Illness — Vitality 202-9 
Youth-Diet — Adult Diet — Old Age — Foreign Foods 210-5 
Body-Action — Digestion — Food-Utilization 2 1 6-9 

Egg- Refrigeration — Fish-Shipping 2 20- 1 

Calculation of Dietaries — Food and Health 222-4 

Production of food, specific foods, food-manufacture, and 
commerce have been considered. 

Consumption of food, though as yet less under the direc- 
tion of science than the more external activities in connection 
with food, is in no less need of scientific regulation. 

Selection and preparation of food determine largely the 
adjustment of diet to human life. 

160 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



SOURCES — PRODUCTION 



&m 



PREPARATION — UTILIZATION 



Nature supplies food ; men and women cultivate it ; women 
and men prepare it ; humanity needs it and eats it. Hu- 
man life continues through food nourishment ; work is done 
by food-energy. Strength and health depend upon the food 
eaten, its kind, combination, quantity, quality. 

Eating is a common physical necessity of all living things. 

Doing and learning are both needed to produce, choose, pre- 
pare the foods human beings require for life, health, strength, 
growth, work. 

Skill and specific scientific knowledge are required for the 
best production of food to-day. Individual producers therefore 
no longer attempt to grow everything, but simply what can be 
well and economically grown together. Only what cannot be 
thus grown in a locality needs to be brought from afar. It is 
thus that humanity is healthfully nourished and so occupied 
as to develop both physically and mentally. 

Knowledge and experience concerning wholesomeness in 
food is a general necessity, especially as factory industry com- 
mercially supplies humanity with much of its food. Ability to 
select nutritious food continues an urgent need even when food 
is prepared outside of the home. 

Humanity is increasingly studying its food-needs and how 
to meet these more adequately, yet less laboriously. 

Food serves a human purpose only as it nourishes humanity. 

Science studies what is happening to find how living may be 
made so to interwork with nature as to make life stronger, more 
wholesome, and human well-being the natural state of humanity. 

Food-Science is a study of Hitman Foods and Hitman Nu- 
trition (that is, the way the body uses food), to learn how to 
promote Hitman Nourishment, hence Hitman Health, through 
such Food Habits as establish Digestion-Efficiency. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 61 



FOOD-STUDY 



ffl?l 



FOOD 



During early ages of human life, humanity ate what nature 
provided unaided. Man then simply sought plants and animals 
for food. Later, as human homes became more settled, food 
began to be produced by man. He worked with nature to raise 
near his home the foods the family needed in order to live, 
grow, work. 

Cultivation of foods suited to human needs has increased 
as humanity has lived on. Preparation of food has also been 
extended. As humanity has itself become more intelligent, it 
has begun to study its food and how this nourishes it. Seeking 
food — producing, preparing, studying it — is teaching human- 
ity what and how it needs to eat for health, strength, length of 
life. Thus is learned what the need for food is under different 
conditions, what food is and does, how food should be pre- 
pared, and how the body can use it. 

Producing and preparing food are everyday, necessary 
activities. They are world-wide occupations of women and 
men and have been throughout the civilized life of human- 
ity. The well-being of humanity, its ability to grow, and its 
power to work, require that good food be produced and be 
well prepared. 

When one does not eat, he feels hungry ; he needs food. 
If hunger continues unsatisfied, there is loss of strength. But 
after eating, strength returns and one feels like being active 
again or at work. When food is cooked, it often seems easier 
to eat, and many foods taste better. But all foods are not more 
digestible when cooked ; eggs, for example, are not. Cooking 
seems to do something to food. Foods do not all seem alike, 
but all seem to do something for the human body. 

What a food does in the human body to nourish it and what 
happens when a food is cooked depend upon what the food is. 

162 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



IN COMBINATION 



RTH 



FOOD AND DIET 



In general, food is considered animal and vegetable, because 
it comes from animals and plants. But to know what food 
does for physical growth, energy, and health requires that one 
know more about foods than simply that they are animal and 
vegetable. 

It is through study of food that one learns what food does 
for the body and how it does this ; how cooking can aid 
in doing it ; and how different kinds of food help the body 
differently. Starchy vegetables, such as potatoes, give it 
energy. What is known about what to eat, how to cook, 
what food does, needs to be considered together. It is thus 
one becomes able to choose and prepare foods that will keep 
a body well, help it to grow, and make it strong and full of 
energy. 

It is customary to eat more than one food at a time and such 
foods together as taste and seem different, as bread and butter. 
Such foods have been found to be different and are called by 
different names, as meats, vegetables, fruits. The combination 
of foods generally eaten together is called a diet. It is from 
foods eaten together that the body gets the nourishment it 
needs for health, energy, and ability to grow. 

It is therefore a diet, a food-combination, — foods eaten to- 
gether, — which supports life and provides energy. The foods 
eaten together must therefore make a food-combination that 
will build the body, keep it in good running order, and supply 
it with energy. 

To know what foods should be combined in order to do for 
the body what food can do, it is necessary to know what each 
food is and does. The composition of foods and the use of 
each to the body need therefore to be known in order to know 
how to combine foods to provide for growth, energy, health. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 63 



FOOD-NEEDS 



HUMAN 



The human body needs, in order to grow or to be active or 
to work or even to live, to take in air, food, water, and to dis- 
pose of the waste products that accumulate in it. 

The activity of the internal organs of the body, such as that 
of the heart, lungs, etc., is work that the body does. This is 
usually done without the person's being aware of it ; some of 
it continues during sleep. In the waking-hours the body- 
activity usually appears to be work. But all its activity, whether 
evident or not, is work for the body and requires energy. 

The body gets its energy to do this work from food. As 
the body is active even in living, it wears out and needs re- 
pair. It takes from food the materials that it needs for 
repair and to keep itself in good running order. If one is 
growing physically, as all do until the twenty-fifth year, the 
body gets the materials it needs for growth from food. How 
the body uses food for warmth, work, repair, and growth, 
physiology tells. 

It has been found that some foods that will give the body 
energy will not provide for its repair and growth ; such are fats, 
sugar, and many vegetables. As the body needs repair every 
day, it must be clearly known what kind of food or what in 
food will repair the body-tissues, as activity wears these out ; 
also what kind of food or what in food promotes growth, and 
whether what is necessary for repair, growth, warmth, and en- 
ergy is in the foods being eaten. 

It has also been found that when such a combination of foods 
is eaten as will do all that food can for the body, each food in 
it is more fully used by the body than when eaten alone. 

Growth, repair, health, heat, energy, for the human body must come 
from food. The body needs also air and water ; likewise care and 
regulation of body-activity. 

164 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



BODY 



FTP! 



FOOD-USES 



It has been learned through science that the food taken into 
the human body is broken up by digestive agencies. It is then 
made over for body-use and body-tissue for repair or growth. 
Energy is provided by the heat generated as the body-tissue 
breaks down in working and as the food unites with the oxygen 
of the air breathed in by the body. In some respects this ac- 
tion is similar to the production of heat as fuel burns. As fuel 
burns it unites with the oxygen of the air in the stove ; heat 
is thus produced. This heat in the body supplies the body-heat 
and is converted into the energy that the body uses as it works, 
as heat in the stove may boil water. 

But no machine, it must be remembered, has the power of 
self-repair through simply the energy fuel gives it. Self-repair 
and growth come only with life, so the body has in its power 
of self-repair and growth what all machines lack. 

It has also been learned that food and the human body are 
composed of the same constituents, five in all. Though most 
foods contain all five constituents in some quantity, all are not 
present in the same quantity in the same food, nor are the 
quantities of the different constituents in any food the same 
as in any other. 

It is the chief constituent of a food which gives it its prin- 
cipal use in the diet ; but all that is edible in a food is used 
in the body. 

The food constituents that build and repair {protein and min- 
eral salts) are in largest quantity in eggs, milk, cheese, 
meats, grains. 
Those that give heat and energy {carbohydrates and fats) are 

principally in starchy vegetables, sugar, fats, oils. 
Those that especially aid the body in keeping itself in condi- 
tion to use its food are green vegetables and fruits. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 165 



NUTRITION-AIDS 



KTP1 



DIGESTION OF 



The body is a living organism ; it needs to be active as well 
as supplied with the air, water, food, that will so nourish it as 
to make effective activity possible to it. Its internal activity 
must itself be sustained for health and strength of body. Diges- 
tion of food is as important to nourishment as is food itself. A 
body that cannot digest food cannot be nourished ; a food that 
cannot be digested cannot provide sustenance. 

It is therefore as important to make and keep a body whole- 
somely active in all its functions as to supply the food materials 
it needs. Oversparing a body in health weakens it ; in ill- 
ness such care is often its temporary need. To make a body 
able to use all usual foods is its health-necessity. To prepare 
foods so that the body-processes are not utilized in digest- 
ing the food tends to incapacitate the digestive tract by non- 
use. Whatever aids in bringing about the above, necessary 
conditions aids nutrition ; that is, the nourishing of the body 
by the utilization of food. 

Pure air in abundance is imperative for assimilation of 
food, as it is food combining with oxygen which gives heat- 
energy and brings food into form for transformation into 
body-tissue. Deprived of air a body cannot be nourished, no 
matter what it may be fed. If air is cut off from a candle 
or lamp, the flame dies down and goes out ; if air is cut off 
from a fire, it dies out ; if air is exhausted in a building, 
as it may be in a fire, people die because they cannot 
breathe. If the air-supply is limited where people live or 
work, their food is not digested. Their bodies are harmed 
in other ways by lack of air. If impure air is breathed, it acts 
as would deficiency of air, and also causes such diseases as 
its impurities propagate. 

The air-need is 30 cu. ft. per hour per person. 

166 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



FOOD 



KfiH 



DIGESTION-NEEDS 



No less imperative than an abundance of pure air to diges- 
tion of food is plenty of pure water. Water and air perform 
different functions, hence the necessity of both. Their pu- 
rity is important for all. Water liquefies food and aids in its 
transformation ; air effects the oxidation of food, through which 
it is made useful to the body. 

Besides the water taken in food (see Food-Composition) usu- 
ally about three pints (or six glasses) of water a day is advised 
as drinking-water. The habit of drinking water between meals 
should be formed, for then water does not overdilute diges- 
tive juices at the time they are needed to digest the food eaten 
at meals. Drinking water between meals has the further ad- 
vantage of bringing it into the digestive tract at the time the 
food eaten needs to be further liquefied. At night and in the 
morning (J- hr. before breakfast) a glass of water further aids 
nutrition by assisting in the removal of waste products. 

Rest no less than activity is essential to health of digestion 
as it is to health of body. The digestive tract needs an abun- 
dant blood-supply when actively digesting food. As extreme 
physical or mental activity prevents this, there is need to lessen 
both for at least half an hour after meals, to which one should 
come not overtired, as exhaustion decreases digestive activity. 
Sleep does too, hence the inadvisability of sleeping immediately 
after eating. The digestive tract itself needs a period of rest be- 
tween those of activity ; eating too frequently prevents digestive 
recuperation. To digest food and to keep itself free from accu- 
mulated waste products the digestive tract itself needs health. 

Activity alternating with rest, leisure to digest a suitable 
supply of wholesome food, periodic thorough removal of waste 
products, secure health of body and digestion of the food the 
body needs for its life and work. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 167 



DIET-SCIENCE 



FfiH 



FOOD- 



By custom, humanity has eaten a mixed diet; that is, a com- 
bination of animal and vegetable food substances. In America 
three meals a day are usual ; in England, four (tea in the after- 
noon) ; and in France, two, with coffee and rolls in the morning. 

Illness and infancy have needed and secured special diets 
everywhere civilized life has penetrated. Children are not just 
little adults. Their bodies are growing not simply larger but 
are in some respects themselves being formed. Teeth illustrate 
this. Other body-formation is also going on which is no less 
important, though not so easily seen as is the coming of teeth. 
Since food is for the body to use, food for children must be 
such as the developing body of childhood can use. (See p. 202.) 

In recent years, science has learned much through obser- 
vation and experiment about the effect of food on health and 
physical development. This was not so fully known in earlier 
times. The kinds and quantities of food needed to sustain life, 
to provide energy, to promote development, to maintain health, 
and to regulate body-activity are now carefully studied. What 
is known is also being more generally taught, that through 
such knowledge humanity may have health for wholesome 
living, strength to work, length of active life. 

As results of scientific study, more thorough mastication 
than is usual is urged for all ; for all adults not at hard phys- 
ical labor, less food ; for all persons in health, a mixed diet. 
It is thus that the digestive tract is used as a whole ; it is such 
use of it that keeps it in health. 

Excess of food overworks the human system and over- 
burdens it with waste products. Thus may be caused indo- 
lence, restlessness, illness. Lack of thorough mastication 
prevents full digestion of the food eaten. Health and econ- 
omy are therefore both promoted by thorough mastication. 

168 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



CUSTOM 



HfiH 



MIXED DIET 



Though a mixed diet is advised, there is a distinct choice 
in the desirability of the animal foods eaten. Less red meat 
is urged ; it contains substances (extractives) that are stimu- 
lating rather than nourishing. In moderation their stimulation 
may sometimes be wholesome. In excess it is disadvantageous ; 
it harms, whereas food that nourishes helps the body to grow, 
to care for its own action, and to do the work the person does. 
Eggs, milk, and milk-products, as cheese, are animal foods with- 
out extractives, as are also white meats, such as poultry and fish. 

It is sometimes stated that some nations, and such of all 
nations as are very limited in their food-supply, live mainly, if 
not entirely, upon a vegetable diet and secure their building- 
food material from grains. Science finds this is not the gen- 
eral practice anywhere. Rice in the Orient is supplemented 
by fish and poultry, the potato of Ireland by bacon, the grain 
foods of the workers of continental Europe by cheese, the corn- 
meal of our Southern states by eggs and poultry. 

Wherever fresh meat cannot be kept or afforded, animal 
foods that can be found or raised are everywhere somewhat 
used. On the seacoast and along streams fish abound and are 
eaten. Inland game and the products of domestic animals, as 
milk and eggs, are eaten where the animals themselves would 
be too costly for food, or for other reason would not be so used. 

Grains thoroughly masticated after being thoroughly cooked 
build the body. Yet alone they cannot do all that is done by a 
mixed diet. To the young it brings foods prepared by nature for 
animal young, as are milk and eggs. While children are them- 
selves being formed and learning to eat adult-diet, they need 
such nature-prepared building food. Mixed diet also makes, for 
all, body-tissues that retain elasticity in advanced age. Such 
tissue not only lasts long but is capable of prolonged activity. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 69 



SCIENTIFIC DIET 



HH7H 



FOOD- 



What one is used to eating often seems satisfying, even when 
it is not a satisfactory diet and is not doing for the body what 
only food in the combination needed can do. Food habits are 
formed as one eats and lives ; they largely control the choice 
of food. This strength of habits should be used to aid the body, 
by making the diet needed by the person the usual familiar 
diet. The kind of food-combination that science has learned 
will give physical endurance and energy, will build and repair 
the body and assist it in using its food, is the necessity of every 
one and can be known by all. For children to form such a 
habit as that of tea- and coffee-drinking is to rob them of 
the opportunity of having well-nourished bodies. 

Physical construction of the body, power of self-repair, 
living-energy in life-activity, all depend upon the food-regulation 
of the person ; hence the importance of food habits, food tastes, 
and food practices. If the food eaten is not able to do these 
things, they are not done or only partly done. The body that 
is poorly nourished may live and do some work, but it is with- 
out resistance to disease, if not itself diseased. It is less strong 
as it is less well, also less effective in whatever it does. 

If the food eaten is not used by the body, because the food 
chosen does not meet the need there is for food, the food is 
not only wasted but overburdens the body with food-waste ; 
this hinders its action and if unremoved poisons it. Though 
building, energy, digestion foods can, as stated above, be found 
in either the animal foods or in vegetable, were they exclusively 
taken from either, the body would be overworked. Less work 
is required to use food from both together, because each food 
then digests more easily and fully, and the digestive tract in 
being thus used as a whole works better itself than when only 
part of it is used. 

170 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



HABITS 



KT?I 



DIET FACTS 



Food habits, like all habits, save work when they are such as 
help, and make work when they are such as hinder. They may 
nourish or they may prevent nutrition. As the body must not 
be habitually overburdened with food or overworked by it, so 
it must not be undersupplied or underexercised in using food. 

In excessive meat diet extractives overstimulate the body ; 
in excessive vegetable diet vegetable fiber overirritates the 
digestive tract. Excess of building food overworks the kid- 
neys ; excess of energy food overweights the body with fat 
that may make it idle instead of active. 

A diet of food deficient in the food-constituents needed 
leaves the body undernourished. This happens no matter how 
much food is eaten, if it is not of the kinds that together make 
the food-combination needed. An undernourished body is 
without energy or health ; hence the importance to human life 
of knowing and using in living what science has learned about : 

(i) Which food-constituents different foods contain. 

(2) How much of the different food-constituents is present in a given 

amount (as 1 lb.) of any food. 

(3) What amounts of each food-constituent the body needs in a given 

time, as a day or week. 

Two of the five food-constituents (protein, carbohydrate, fat, 
mineral salts, water) do not need constant consideration if a 
mixed diet of wholesome natural food is eaten ; these constit- 
uents are mineral salts and water. A mixed diet gives the 
mineral salts needed in health. When an excess of mineral 
salts is needed, as in growth and some types of illness (as bone- 
deterioration, such as rickets in children), milk and eggs should 
be eaten in larger quantities ; these provide the additional salts 
then required. Water is needed by the body in relatively large 
quantity. It is also present in most foods in large proportion. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 71 



BUILDING FOODS 



KTTH 



DIET- 



When one is growing, food that will build physically is es- 
pecially needed and should be eaten. All body-activity, even 
simply living, wears the body out so that it needs repair ; that 
is, rebuilding of its tissues. 

The body contains more water than any other constituent. 
Water keeps the liquids of the body, as blood, in a fluid state. 
The next largest quantity of a body-constituent is mineral salts ; 
the body-skeleton is mainly mineral matter. Protein, the 
tissue-substance, is next in quantity ; it forms tissue, as body- 
muscle. Body-fat is next. Carbohydrate is least and in very 
small quantity in the body. 

It is strength of body which tissue-building food (protein) promotes. 
It forms the body during growth ; it repairs for tissue-activity as one lives 
and works. Beef and mutton build, repair, spare tissue, and stimulate. 
Chicken and oysters do not stimulate. Eggs, milk, cheese, build, repair, 
and give energy, as do cereals, breads, graham crackers, macaroni. Beans, 
peas, lentils, build, repair, and give energy. Most foods do this somewhat. 
Mineral matter builds bone and aids growth and body-activity too. 

Science finds the overeating of meat one of the mistakes of 
human diet. Red meats through their extractives may so stimu- 
late as to leave a body feeling alive but neither strong for work 
nor able to sustain activity. A body so fed may tire quickly after 
eating ; it may feel hungry soon. Constant need of food may 
keep a body so occupied digesting food that it is able to do little 
else. The digestive tract may be worn out by such overuse. 

Even the tissue-formers without extractives (eggs, milk, 
white meats, grains), if overeaten, require the body to dispose 
of body-waste and food-waste that need not have troubled it, 
do exhaust it, and may poison it, instead of repairing it for 
wholesome working. 

For the quantity of tissue-forming food needed, see p. 222. 

1 72 FOOD — WHA T IT IS AND DOES 



ELEMENTS 



ffl?l 



ENERGY FOODS 



One that feels full of life and is active has energy. The 
work of the body is done by its energy. Even a well-formed 
strong body could not work long if food brought no energy- 
supply. The body would use itself for the energy required in 
living. Hence the need of heat-energy foods for body-heat and 
activity, and building foods for tissue-growth and repair. It is 
thus that the body is aided by food in its living and working 
and not hindered by unnecessary waste or work. 

Energy foods form the largest proportion of daily food, but 
enter into the body-composition in the least, for they are con- 
sumed for current body-heat and activity. 

It is activity of body which energy foods (carbohydrates and 
fats) promote. These provide for the active living of the body 
itself and its action in the work one does. 

Starch, as in starchy vegetables (potato, rice), grains — carbohydrates. 
Sugar, as in sugar mixtures (cake, candy), fruits (dates) — carbohydrates. 
Fat (and oil), as in meats, butter, cream, olive and other edible oils — fats. 

Starch requires prolonged cooking and longer digestion than 
sugar or fat. The delayed digestion of starchy food enables it 
to provide energy longer after eating than sugar and fat energy 
foods. Starchy food gives endurance in activity. But were it 
only used for energy, the supply of energy would be too delayed 
and the digestive tract overworked in securing from starch 
alone all energy needed. It might also be overburdened with 
vegetable fiber, with which starch is usually combined in foods. 

Sugar and fat are therefore also necessary heat-energy foods. 
But used alone they would require too continuous eating to 
sustain energy, because used so quickly. They are not usually 
as digestible when constantly eaten in appreciable quantities 
as is the starch in potato and bread. Sugar and starch may 
store fat in the body. Fat in food probably does not. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 73 



DIGESTION FOODS 



ran 



DIET 



Though it is eating animal and vegetable foods together that 
furthers digestion of all food eaten, there are some foods that 
seem especially to promote digestion. Such, rather than direct 
nourishment of the body, is the principal use in the diet of 
many fruits and green vegetables. These foods contain water 
in large quantity and mineral salts in large proportion to all their 
solid constituents. They give a sense of freshness and well- 
being by enabling the body to do all its work well through being 
kept in good running order. Mineral salts and water are needed 
in growth, also throughout life for regulating the body-action 
within the body itself. 

Green vegetables and fruits usually also contain vegetable 
fiber (cellulose) in relatively large quantity. This is practically 
indigestible. Its presence tends, however, to increase the peri- 
staltic action in the intestine. This aids in freeing the alimen- 
tary tract of food- waste products. When these are not removed, 
they encourage germ-life, that may disorder digestion, even 
when no specific disease, such as typhoid fever, is caused by 
the presence of disease-germs. 

Nature has produced some foods that, when properly used, 
help the body to work without itself being overworked by 
digesting the food that life and work require. 

Laxative foods are such. They especially aid the body in 
keeping itself free from food-waste. Such foods should be 
used instead of medicines for this purpose. These are : 

Tomatoes, onions, spinach, rhubarb, green vegetables in general. 
Apples, peaches (ripe), orange- and grape-juice, prunes, dates, figs. 
Cereals, mush, bread (rye, graham, whole-wheat), gingerbread. 
Olive-oil at night. Water at night and in morning \ hr. before breakfast. 

Whatever diet will do for the body is more wholesomely 
done thus than in any other way. 

1 74 FOOD — WHA T IT IS AND DOES 



FACTORS 



ffl?l 



PROTECTIVE FOODS 



What the body can do itself in utilizing its food, it needs to 
do in health. But digesting food is not the only activity of the 
body. Important as digestion is, it needs to be so accomplished 
that the body is prepared through it for other work and not 
simply absorbed in its own living. Though all unnecessary 
digestion impairs body usefulness, if not health itself, whole- 
some digestive activity is essential to healthful digestion. 

Fat in moderation aids the general working of the body ; 
without it disorders and difficulties ensue. For the same 
weight fat furnishes over twice the quantity of heat-energy 
which sugar or starch can produce. Active children and physi- 
cally laboring adults can use more fat than others use fully or 
digest freely. Fat passes as heat-energy and is probably not 
stored as body-fat. Sugar and starch eaten beyond the im- 
mediate need of the body become body-fat. Body-fat protects 
other body-tissue from use for energy by itself furnishing heat 
and energy first. Fat-reserve serves thus in illness and food- 
deprivation of any type. Excess fat in the body or in food 
usually interferes with health. 

Tissue-sparing is a function of some protein foods. Gelatin 
(p. 94) is a form of protein which will not build tissue, but 
by being present in the diet can prevent body-tissue from be- 
ing worn out by work. This has a use even in health, as the 
unnecessary breaking down and renewal of tissue consumes 
energy. All needless body-functioning destroys instead of 
preserves wholesome body-activity and the body itself in a 
state of healthful repair. In illness tissue-sparers are often 
necessary. They save a body weakened by disease from the 
drain upon it that would otherwise be required to sustain the 
work of repair beyond the repair-need absolutely imperative 
to preserve life. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 75 



CONCENTRATED FOODS 



RT7H 



NATURAL 



In the processes of nature there goes on all the time a break- 
ing down of complex substances into simpler and a building 
up of simple substances into more complex. Bacteria break 
down complex substances ; plants and animals utilize these. 
Human bodies take for food the more complex substances pre- 
pared in plants and animals. Waste products of body-activity 
are complex ; bacteria break these down and return simpler 
forms to the soil and atmosphere for nature's further use. 

Though human foods have concentrated in them many chem- 
ically complex substances, study of food-composition has shown 
that all foods are not equally complex or condensed. Some are 
principally water ; the solid nutrients in these may be relatively 
small. Other foods show condensed solid nutrient substances, 
as do grains, but without all of these always being fully available 
as digestible human food. Still others contain very little that 
is not nutritive, and in a form to be fully assimilated by the body. 
{See eggs, p. 108.) Such are nature's concentrated foods. 

Such foods are of great value, but they cannot be used ex- 
clusively. As the body is and now works it needs some bulk 
to its food for its digestive tract to function. In the variety 
in which nature makes food available much that is found in 
food that is not itself nourishing may aid the body in utilizing 
food, as does water. It is, however, important in what quantity 
even natural constituents in food, as cellulose, be eaten, if not 
themselves nutrients, that is, nourishing substances. Though 
such non-nutrients may aid digestion somewhat, they do not 
supply the material that makes either the body or its energy. 

Concentrated foods of nature, though they contain in them- 
selves all food-constituents that nourish and are free from the 
dangers of condensed foods of commerce, are not all-sufficient 
as human diet, exceedingly important factors as they are in it. 

1 76 FOOD — WHA T IT IS AND DOES 



COMMERCIAL 



KTTPJ 



PREPARED FOODS 



Feeding the body food it cannot use can starve it. Preparing 
food so that it does not require activity of the entire digestive 
tract may incapacitate the body. Human food needs to be in 
wholesome condition, properly chosen and prepared, and the 
body itself be so cared for that it is well and works well in its 
living-processes. It is thus that the body is nourished. 

Predigested foods are usually prepared with a ferment that 
does part of the work of the digestive juices. Such a food 
uses the alimentary tract only partially, whereas it needs to 
be fully active to be well itself. In illness, predigested foods 
are sometimes needed. Peptonized foods serve to nourish a 
body that cannot otherwise nourish itself. Fermented foods, as 
koumiss, may save the body similarly when this is its need. 

Prepared foods may by factory preparation of food materials 
lessen home work. Cereals are commercially so prepared. 
They keep less well when partially cooked and are more expen- 
sive. They take up water as cooked, and do not then resist 
further changes that they would in the dry state. The moisture 
absorbed increases the weight. Such preparation saves work 
in the home, and home fuel for prolonged cooking. There is, 
however, in all such commercial food-preparation the danger 
that the home completion of the process may be insufficient. 
This often happens with cereals and results in such prepared 
foods being used underprepared. Other prepared foods may 
lose water ; all condensed- and powdered-milk preparations 
do. The high heating of milk changes its composition. 

All canned, preserved, dried, steamed, or otherwise cooked 
foods are prepared for keeping or for digestion. Any aid that 
makes a food digestible is desirable, but any effort to digest it 
externally may prove a deprivation by making unnecessary the 
body-activity that is essential to healthful digestive functioning. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 77 



LIFE AND FOOD 



FTTH 



KINDS 



Kinds and amounts of food are both important to health. 
They act together in securing health. Both must change some- 
what under different conditions of life if food is to aid a body 
in living and working effectively. The life of the body itself 
requires food ; the work of the body does, too. The age of 
the person, the size, sex, health ; the work ; the climate, season, 
— all affect both the kinds and amounts of food needed. The 
location and circumstances affect the food-supply of families. 

Amounts and kinds of food must not only provide adequately 
for the body-needs but must supply foods that can be used 
under the conditions prevailing. A child is learning to eat ; 
an adult is using food to work ; the aged are losing the ability 
to use food. The food-need of the adult of very active physical 
life differs from that needed for less muscular exertion, mainly 
in the energy-supply necessary. For much manual work much 
heat-energy is needed ; for a life of little physical activity more 
digestion food-aid is required ; for age and childhood easily 
digested food is essential. But the power to digest food is 
going from the aged and coming to the child. The aged are 
becoming increasingly inactive, with tissues that are worn, not 
developing as are a child's. The aged have decreased need 
for energy food for work, but somewhat increased need for 
body-heat and body-repair. 

Building foods, heat-energy, and digestion foods are all 
needed always. Which foods are preferable under different 
conditions, and why they are, has been discussed. Because 
most foods contain some of all constituents that build, give 
energy, and aid digestion, a very limited food-supply will keep 
alive those restricted to it. But for vigor and health the food- 
supply needs to be plentiful, varied, wholesome, and the diet 
selected in accord with the food-needs of those it feeds. 

1 78 FOOD — WHA T IT IS AND DOES 



OF FOOD 



Bl?l 



LIVING AND FOOD 



In health the same person under the same conditions of 
living needs the same food-constituents and in the same quan- 
tity, but needs to obtain these from a variety of foods. Starchy 
vegetables are of many kinds, as are also green ; so are fruits, 
grains, dairy-products, and animal foods. Though no two foods 
are exactly alike, a class of foods serves in general the same 
food-purpose. How foods differ from one another and how 
the classes of foods differ is shown on pp. 190-193. 

Adults can usually digest all kinds of food and all the foods 
of each kind. That they may be able to do so it is, however, 
necessary that as they mature they learn to eat every common 
food. For diet-restrictions in childhood, see pp. 202-205. 
<±The kinds of food a family has eaten, it usually prefers. The 
kinds that have prevailed in a locality are usually preferred 
there. Sometimes an earlier need for a kind of diet passes, 
but leaves that diet as the food habit of the district. It is often 
found that where it was originally hard to grow or get food a 
greater variety is not desired even when it becomes possible. 
Often new foods cannot be easily introduced even when they 
are desirable and obtainable ; this is most frequent where for 
a long time few foods have been eaten. 

Where much physical activity, especially in the open air, has 
been usual, as in pioneer times or in agricultural districts, an 
energy-giving diet containing much starch, sugar, and fat is 
needed. If the conditions of life change and the food habits 
are not adjusted to the change, the former diet may cause ill- 
ness. The breakfast of colonial days in New England would 
menace the health of any one not doing hard work out-of-doors. 
The need to change diet increases with travel and variation 
in occupation ; the ability to do so comes with the habit of 
eating many kinds of food. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 79 



SEASONAL DIET 



filfl 



diet- 



As seasons change, foods do too, in availability and quality. 
The food-needs of the body are also altered by temperature 
changes, as they are by change from one climate to another. 

When it is cold, heat-giving food needs to be increased, be- 
cause the body then loses heat more rapidly ; it is also usually 
more active in cold weather. In warm, more liquid and refresh- 
ing food is needed, and from \ to ^ less food than in winter. 

At all times repair food is required. The quantity needed is 
small (J lb. or less daily per adult person). This varies less for 
the same person or for persons of like maturity than do other 
food-needs ; during growth this is increased and varies more. 
As growth is periodic even during the years it continues, the 
food-need it occasions varies with seasonal growth itself. 

Foods that keep well form the staple food-supply of winter. 
Foods as they grow offer the variety desirable in summer. The 
fall brings uneven weather and with it danger of disease ; this 
needs to be met with a substantial regularly sustained food- 
supply that can reenforce physical resistance and thus main- 
tain health. Spring often saps vitality. Food then needs to be 
palatable and plentiful ; it must invigorate, even though the 
desire for food may be so decreased as not to seek adequate 
sustenance for the body. 

Fruits and green vegetables are desirable at all seasons but 
necessary in warmer weather. Thin soups and light, cold des- 
serts aid in making food appetizing in summer. Starchy foods 
(as heat-producing flour mixtures), cereals, sugars, fatter meats, 
thicker, richer soups, supply satisfactorily the food supplement 
winter requires. In warm weather breakfast should be early 
and the evening meal after the heat of the day subsides, for 
food to be refreshing. More water is needed in summer before 
retiring, upon rising, and between meals. 

180 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMPOSITION 



HTF4 



DAILY DIET 



In the morning the body is rested through sleep ; at night 
it is tired ; during the day it is at work. In getting ready to 
work in the morning it needs an energy-supply that is not so 
heavy as to burden the body with food-care instead of provid- 
ing it with food-help. Food that will somewhat spare tissue, 
and digestion-foods, are also morning food-needs. 

For those not at hard physical work the noon food-need is 
for some sustaining energy food that will be easily digested, 
though not entirely used over-quickly ; also slight building and 
refreshing food. At night the adult body needs repair, some 
energy food that will be readily digested ; also some laxative 
food, but no highly stimulating food. For children's needs, 
see pp. 202-205. 

It is usual to consider \ the daily food the dinner-amount and \ each 
the breakfast and luncheon. Meat is advised not more than once a day. 
Red meat (beef, etc.) should alternate with white (chicken, etc.) or other non- 
stimulating animal food (eggs, etc.). At noon vegetable building food is 
suitable, for then the starch combined with it has an opportunity to digest 
before sleep and furnish sustaining energy for the latter part of the wak- 
ing day. As \ the building food should be animal and \ vegetable, this 
gives an opportunity to arrange it so. 

The quantities of food desirable and the differences in child- 
and adult-diet will be considered later. It is said a man at hard 
work and a child over 2 years cannot be overfed; Xh&tfood 
enough is their need. But the child is to be built much for 
growth and needs much energy for exercise, as growth depends 
upon exercise too. The child is, however, only learning to eat. 
The man has learned and is grown. He needs great energy 
and much repair — energy-food that lasts and food that spares 
as well as repairs tissue. Therefore though a child of 2 years 
and over and a laborer both need much food, yet they need 
different food (pp. 189-203). 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 81 



AGE AND WORK 



Bl?l 



AMOUNTS 



More food is needed in cold weather than warm ; more by 
those of large stature than small ; more by men than women ; 
more by adults than children ; more by adults in full vigor than 
the aged ; more by those that do hard manual labor than those 
that do moderate manual work ; more by those that do mod- 
erate manual work than those that do sedentary or desk work. 

Amoimts of food needed under different conditions compared with that 
required by a man at moderate muscular work. 





Hard Labor 


Moderate Work 


Sedentary Activity 


Man 
Woman 


1* 

I 


I 
4 
3 


4 
T'o 


Old age, T 9 ^ — Extreme old age, T 7 o - f 




15-16 Years 


13-14 Years 


12 Years 


Boys 
Girls 


4 


1 


To' 




io-ii Years 


6-9 Years 


2-5 Years 


Child 


3 

3 


i 


! 


Infant under 2 years, — jq 



(Write the above proportions as decimals) 



Food-quantities in Daily-Diet, p. 222 



The amounts of food needed by a man at different work de- 
crease by i ; by a boy at different ages increase by T L. 

How do these change for women, girls, children, the aged ? 

Not simply the total quantities of food needed by adults and 
children differ, but also the amounts of the different food- 
constituents. (See p. 203.) 

For kinds and amounts of food suitable for children at dif- 
ferent ages, see pp. 202-203. 

What occupations are heavy manual labor in city and country ? 
Which are moderate ? W T hich light or sedentary ? 



182 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



OF FOOD 



ffllH 



FOOD AND INCOME 



Compare amount of food for a man at sedentary work, a woman 
at moderate labor, boy 13-14, girl 15-16, and extreme 
old age. 

Under what conditions will any one else need what a boy 
15-16 eats ? Under what conditions will a woman, boy, 
and girl need what an aged person eats? 

How much food does a boy need at 1 2 ? a girl at 1 2 ? a boy 
at 10 ? a girl at 10 ? 

When do boys and girls need the same amount ; when different ? 

When does a child need i as much food as its mother ? as 
its father ? 

How much more food does a boy 13-14 need than a child 2-5 ? 



Distribution of Incomes j 


$1000 


§2200 


$3600 


Food 

Rent 

Maintenance of house 

Clothing 

All other expenses 


1 
3 

1 

6 

1 
6 
1 
6 


5 

T6 

*- 
*- 


A 
f + 

f 



(Write the above proportions as decimals) (For families of 5 : 2 adults ; 3 children) 

How much in dollars does each family spend for food ? for 
rent, etc. ? for food a week ? Compare food expenditure 
with that given on page 156. 

If the man at $1000 does heavy labor, and the one at $3600 
sedentary work, how much more food would the former 
need ? If one mother does moderate work and the other 
light, what is the difference in the food-need ? 

Will a family of girls or boys spend more on food ? 

If each of the above families had a boy over 14, a girl under 
12, a child of 8, and the father and mother do moderate 
work, what would each spend apiece for food a week ? 

Try this with other families that you select yourselves. 



FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 



183 



POPULATION OF UNITED STATES — 1910 



AGE DISTRIBUTION 



Census, 1910 


Total 


% 


Men — Boys 


Ratio 


Women — ( Iiki.s 


Total Population 


91,972,266 


IOO. 


47032,277 


106. to 


IOO 


44,639,989 


Under 5 yr. 


10,631,364 


11.6 


5,380'596 


102.5 M 


IOO 


5,250,768 


5 to 14 " 


18,867,772 


20.5 


9,525,876 


102. ' 


IOO 


9,341,896 


15 « 24 « 


18,120,587 


19.7 


9,107,572 


IOI. ' 


IOO 


9,013,015 


25 " 44 " 


26,809,875 


29.1 


14,054.482 


I I0.2 " 


IOO 


J 2,755,393 


45 " 64 M 


13,424,089 


14.6 


7.163,532 


1 144 " 


IOO 


6,260,757 


65 and over 


3,949,524 


4-3 


1,985,976 


IOI. I " 


IOO 


1,963,548 



oj Distribution by Ages of Men — Boys and Women — Girls 





Under 5 
Yr. 


5 TO 14 

Yr. 


15 TO 24 

Yr. 


25 TO 44 

Yr. 


45 TO 64 65 AND 

Yr. over 


Men — Boys 
Women — Girls 


II.4 
II.8 


20.I 
20.9 


19.2 

20.2 


29.7 
28.6 


15. 1 4.2 
14. 4.4 



(Find similar percentages for different groups given on opposite page.) 



NATIVE WHITE AND NATIVE NEGRO 
MILLIONS 



FOREIGN-BORN 
WHITE 




(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 

Compare percentages in diagram for 19 10 with number of 
persons stated on opposite page. 

Make a comparative chart of these percentages in both dia- 
grams. Use heavy, solid black for 19 10 and crossed 
lines for 1900. 



184 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



AGE — RACE — NATIVE — FOREIGN COMPOSITION OF POPULATION 



Census, 1910 


Total 


% 


Men — Boys 


Ratio 


Women — 
Girls 


Native white {native 












parentage) 


49,488,575 


100 


25,229,218 


104 to 100 


24,259,357 


Under 5 yr. 


6,546,282 


13.2 


3,326,237 


103.3 " IO ° 


3,220,045 


5 to 14 M 


11,185,298 


22.6 


5,669,886 


102.8 " 100 


5,515,412 


15 « 24 " 


9,771,977 


20.1 


4,885,442 


100. " 100 


4,886,535 


25 « 44 « 


12,946,441 


26.1 


6,642,210 


105.4 " 100 


6,304,231 


45 " 64 « 


6,740,000 


I3.6 


3,547,3 2 5 


1 1 I.I " 100 


3,192,675 


65 and over 


2,201,068 


4.4 


1,089,349 


98. " 100 


1,111,719 


Native white {foreign 












or mixed parentage) 


18,897,837 


100 


9,425,239 


99.5 to 100 


9,472,598 


Under 5 yr. 


2,674,125 


14.2 


1,350,473 


102. " 100 


1,323,652 


5 to 14 " 


4>55M44 


24.1 


2,289,629 


101.2 '' 100 


2,261,815 


15 " 24 " 


4,078,683 


21.6 


2,008,982 


97.I " 100 


2,068,701 


25 " 44 " 


5,210,109 


27.6 


2,644,475 


97. " 100 


2,644,475 


45 " 64 w 


2,117,386 


II. 2 


1,076,222 


103.4 " IOO 


1,041,164 


65 and over 


255,586 


1.4 


128,662 


101.4 " IOO 


126,924 


Foreign-born white 


13,345,545 


100 


7,523,788 


129.2 to 100 


5,821,757 


Under 5 yr. 


102,507 


.8 


51,940 


102.7 " IOO 


50,567 


5 to 14 " 


656,839 


4.9 


331,955 


102.2 " IOO 


324,884 


15 " 24 « 


2,104,142 


15.8 


1,175,674 


126.6" IOO 


928,468 


25 « 44 " 


5'879'979 


41.9 


3,442,770 


141.3 " IOO 


1,497,783 


65 and over 


1,183,349 


8.9 


607,008 


105.3 " IOO 


576,341 


Negro 


9,827,763 


100 


4,885,881 


98.9 to 100 


4,941,882 


Under 5 yr. 


1,263,288 


12.9 


629,320 


99.3 " IOO 


633,968 


5 to 14 " 


2,401,819 


24.4 


1,197,249 


99.4 " IOO 


1,204,570 


15 « 24 « 


2,091,211 


21.3 


990,102 


89.9 " IOO 


1,101,109 


25 « 44 « 


2,638,178 


26.8 


1,304,098 


97.8 " IOO 


1,334,080 


45 " 64 " 


1,108,103 


"•3 


595,554 


116.2 " IOO 


512,549 


65 and over 


294,124 


3- 


152,482 


107.7 " I0 ° 


141,642 


Indian 


265,683 


100 


135,133 


103.5 to 100 


130,550 


Under 5 yr. 


40,384 


15.2 


20,202 


IOO. I " IOO 


20,182 


5 to 14 " 


67,934 


25.6 


34,548 


103.5 " IOO 


33,386 


15 « 24 " 


50,330 


18.9 


25,877 


105.8 " IOO 


24,453 


25 « 44 « 


60,175 


22.6 


30,840 


105. 1 " IOO 


29,335 


45 " 64 " 


32,925 


12.4 


17,055 


107.5 " IO ° 


15,870 


65 and over 


12,986 


4.9 


6,130 


89.4 " IOO 


6,856 


Chinese, Japanese, and 












all others 


146,863 


100 


133,018 


960.8 to 100 


13,845 


Under 5 yr. 


4,778 


3-3 


2,424 


103. " IOO 


2,354 


5 to 14 " 


4,438 


3- 


2,609 


142.6 " IOO 


1,829 


15 " 24 " 


. 24,244 


16.5 


21,495 


781.9 " IOO 


2,749 


25 " 44 " 


74,993 


5i-i 


68,930 


1,136.9 " IOO 


6,063 


45 " 6 4 " 


33, 1 57 


22.6 


32,441 


4,530.9 " IOO 


716 


65 and over 


2,411 


1.6 


2,345 


Women less IOO 
than 


66 



FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 



185 



PRODUCTION OF FOOD 



UNITED STATES — 1909 



Animal Foods 



(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 





Sold 


Value 


Ratio of Sales 
to Production 


Price in 
1909 


Milk (gallons) 
Cream " 
Butter fat (pounds) 
Butter 
Cheese 


1,937,255,864 

54,933,583 

305,662,587 

415,080,489 

8,136,901 


$252,436,757 

37,655,047 

82,311,511 

100,378,123 

987,974 


(1909) 

% 
41.7 
86.5 


(1899) 

% 

48.3 
89.7 


13^ per gal. 
68.5^" " 

25^ per lb. 
14/' " " 





Produced 


Sold 


Value 


% Increase 1899-1909 
(quantity) (cost) 


Eggs (doz.) 
All fowls 


i,59i,3 II o7i 

488,468,354 


926,465,787 
153,600,169 


$180,768,249 

75,273,524 


23% 


II2.6 

48. 



All Domestic Animals, in 1909, $5,296,421,619 (Total Value) 





Number 


Value 


Av. Per Head 


On Farms 


Not on Farms 


Cattle 
Sheep 
Goats 
Swine 


63,682,648 

52,838,748 

3,029,795 

59,473,636 


$1,560,339,868 

234,664,528 

6,542,172 

409,414,568 


$24.50 

4-44 
2.16 
6.88 


$24.26 
4.44 
2.12 

6.86 


#32.37 
4.66 

3- J 9 

7.82 



States Leading in 


Number of A> 


tmals on Farms, 1910 




All Cattle 


Dairy Cows 


Swine 


Sheep and Goats 


1 


Texas 


New York 


Iowa 


Wyoming 


2 


Iowa 


Wisconsin 


Illinois 


Montana 


3 


Kansas 


Iowa 


Missouri 


Ohio 


4 


Nebraska 


Minnesota 


Indiana 


New Mexico 


5 


Wisconsin 


Illinois 


Nebraska 


Idaho 


6 


Missouri 


Texas 


Ohio 


Texas 


7 


Illinois 


Pennsylvania 


Kansas 


Oregon 


8 


New York 


Ohio 


Texas 


California 


9 


Minnesota 


Missouri 


Oklahoma 


Michigan 


10 


California 


Michigan 


Wisconsin 


Missouri 



Are these the states indicated on the maps on pp. 122-125 ? 

Which state ranks highest in several products ? What are the products ? 

What articles besides food will be produced in the states raising animals ? 



186 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



AND VALUE IN UNITED STATES — 1909 



PRODUCTION OF FOOD 



(From the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910) 



Vegetable Foods 



Produced 


Value 


% Increase 
1899-1909 


Price in 


1909 


Cereals 






Amount 


Value 






Corn (bu.) 


2,552,189,630 


^ I '438,553'9 I 9 


73-7 


81.5 


56^ per bu. 


Wheat 


683,379.259 


657,656,801 


77.8 


7i-3 


9 6 ^ 




Buckwheat " 


I4,849,33 2 


9'33o 5 592 


62.3 


22.8 


62 + ^ ' 


' " 


Barley- 


I73»344,2i2 


92,458,571 


122. 1 


53-3 


53f 


' " 


Rye 


29,520,457 


20,421,812 


66.2 


43-9 


69^ " " 


Rice (rough) " 


21,838,580 


16,019,607 


I53- 1 


4-3 


IZf ' 


! «< 


Vegetables 














Potatoes " 


389,194,965 


166,423,910 


69.2 


18.8 


43-^ " 


Sweet 


59,232,070 


35,429,176 


78.3 


28. 


60-^ " " 


Beans 


11,251,160 


21,771,482 


185.2 


i-93 


28^ ' 


' " 


Peas 


7,129,294 


10,963,739 


38.6 


i-53 


83 + ^ " 


All other " 




216,257,068 


79.8 










Sugar (tons) 


11,820,379 


61,648,942 


89.1 


•57 


$5.61 per ton 


Berries (qt.) 


426,565,863 


29,974,481 


19.8 


3°- 


if ' 


' qt. 


Fruits 














Orchard (bu.) 


216,083,695 


140,867,347 


68.2 


65-3 


65^ 


' bu. 


Tropical, etc. " 




8,227,838 


200.3 












Nuts (lb.) 


62,328,010 


1.949.93 1 


128.1 


46.5 


if 


* qt- 


Peanuts " 


19,415,816 


18,271,929 


i5 J -3 


•9 


ss-f 


' bu. 


Cottonseed (tons) 


5.324,634 


121,076,984 


157-9 


34-2 


$22.73 


' ton 



Total crops increased from l8gg to igog in value 66.6%. 

Note which crops have increased. Where are they grown ? 
(See maps, pp. 18-19.) 

Note prices of large-quantity sales. Compare these prices 
with current local retail prices. 

Estimate for winter wheat crop in the United States for 
19 1 4 is 551,000,000 bushels or 11.5% more than aver- 
age for 10 years past. During this period 36,506,000 
acres under wheat cultivation were abandoned. 

All information necessary for a complete, exact computation 
of food consumed in the United States is not available. 

For importations of food, see p. 158. 

French consumption of food has been calculated. (See p. 1 59.) 



FOOD-SCIENCE— HUMAN NUTRITION 



187 



FOOD-COMPOSITION 



HTH 



FUEL VALUE 



Foods are composed of a great many chemical elements, as 
nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulpliur, phosphorus, cal- 
cium, sodium, potassium. These so unite as to form the very 
complex food-constituents, protein, carbohydrates, fats, and 
the simpler mineral salts and water. 

As it is through the oxidation of food that it comes into 
use in the body, the fuel value — that is, the amount of heat 
produced as the food is oxidized — has been determined for 
all common foods. The amount of heat that foods yield as 
they unite with oxygen is measured in heat units called calo- 
ries. A calorie is the quantity of heat which will raise I pint of 
water 4 F (or 1 liter i°C). Calculation of fuel value, p. 223. 

Adults need from their food 2000 - to 3000 4- calories a 
day according to their age, sex, size, work (see p. 223). A man 
at very hard work needs food that will yield heat enough daily 
to raise \ bbl. of water from freezing to boiling, or heat enough 
in a week to convert 1 bbl. (63 gal.) from ice to steam. 



Fuel Value 



Common Foods 



Daily 

Amount 



Average 
in Pounds 



One Pound 



Food 



Calokies 



Relative HeatValui 



6-14 oz 

2-5 
2-5 
1-4 
8-16 

8-32 
4-12 
8-16 



1 loaf 
40 balls 
2C 

1 pint 
8-10 

3-4 
3-4 
2-3 
2-3 



Bread 

Butter 

Sugar 

Oatmeal 

Milk 

Eggs 

Meat 

Potatoes 

Tomatoes 

Apples 

Bananas 

Peanuts 



1200 
34io 

175° 

1800 
310 
635 

1045 

295 

95 

190 

260 

1775 



An inactive person weighing 150 pounds needs daily 1800 + calories to 
repair tissues, supply energy, maintain body te?nperature. 



188 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



VARIETY — SIMILARITY 



fflrH 



DIET- COMPOSITION 



Foods, the edible parts of plants and animals, are composed 
of what these are. It is this that makes food capable of carry- 
ing into the body substances that sustain its life and activity. 
These substances {protein, fat, carbohydrates, mineral salts, 
water) are present in different quantities. This makes some 
foods able to take the place of others and some to add in 
combination what others lack. 



Food Charts 

Plant foods [ w e at g S r e 
(% in i pound) 



Mineral saltsl 
Protein 

30 40 mi 




Supplementary Foods 

Carbohydrates!!!!^! . . , , , 
Fat mm J Animal foods 

flO 70 80 90 100 (% in i pound) 

lllllllllllllllllBeef 



Peas (shelled 

Cucumbers 



Mutton 



Chicken 



Butter 




Macaroni 



I Eggs 




This comparison is of I lb. of each food, but foods, it should be remem- 
bered, are eaten in different quantities. This is somewhat controlled by 
their bulk when prepared. Potatoes i£- 2 lb. is approximately the equiv- 
alent of -J— f lb. rice as vegetable served with meat. Note their nutrients. 
Beef i-ii lb. serves three. Butter for three for a day weighs f lb. 
Diet Chart, p. 222 Calculation of Dietary, p. 223 



FOOD-SCIENCE— HUMAN NUTRITION 



189 



FOOD-COMPOSITION TABLES 



ANIMAL FOODS (AS PURCHASED) 



R 


W 


Animal Foods 


P 


F 


CH 


MM 


Calories 


% 


% 


Beef, fresh 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Per pound 


13 


52 


Porterhouse 


19 


18 




.8 


1 100 




64 


Rib rolls 


19 


17 




•9 


1055 


7 


61 


Round 


19 


T 3 




1. 


890 


10 


54 


Flank 


17 


19 




•7 


1 105 


'3 


54 


Sirloin steak 


17 


16 




•9 


975 


16 


57 


Shoulder clod 


16 


10 




•9 


7 J 5 


13 


53 


Loin 


16 


18 




•9 


1025 


16 


53 


Chuck ribs 


16 


15 




.8 


910 


28 


46 


Neck 


15 


12 




•7 


1 165 


21 


44 


Ribs 


14 


21 




•7 


i'35 


21 


45 


Rump 


14 


20 




•7 


1090 


37 


43 


Shank (fore) 


13 


7 




.6 


545 


19 


49 


Fore quarter 


15- 


18 




•7 


995 


16 


50 


Hind quarter 
Canned, dried, etc. 


15 + 


19 




•7 


1045 


5 


54 


Dried (salted) 


26 + 


7 




9- 


790 




52 


Canned (corned) 


26 + 


19 




4- 


1270 




52 


(boiled) 


26- 


2 3 




1.+ 


1470 


8 


49 


Corned 


14 + 


24 




5-- 


1245 


6 


59 


Tongue (pickled) 
Veal 


12- 


19 




4- 


IOIO 


3 


68 


Leg cutlets 


20 


8 




1. 


695 


i4 


60 


Leg 


16- 


8 




•9 


625 


21 


52 


Breast 
Mutton 


15 + 


11 




.8 


745 


18 


5i 


Leg (hind) 


x 5 


15- 




.8 


890 


16 


42 


Loin chops 


14- 


28 




•7 


1415 


10 


39 


Flank 
Lamb 


14- 


37 




.6 


1770 


17 


53 


Leg (hind) 


16 


14 




•9 


860 


*9 


46 


Breast 
Poultry 


iS 


19 




.8 


1075 


23 


42 


Turkey 


16 


18 




.8 


1060 


18 


39 


Goose 


13 


30 




•7 


1475 


26 


47 


Fowls 


14- 


12 




•7 


765 


42 


44 


Broilers 


13- 


1 + 




•7 


305 




66 


Eggs 


*3 


9 + 




•9 


635 



R, refuse; IV, water; P, protein; F, fat; CH, carbohydrates; MM, mineral salts. (Over 
.5 is considered 1 ; under .5 is dropped except for mineral salts; + means more; — , less) 

What constituent gives animal foods high fuel value? For what are 
those of low heat value eaten? 



190 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



FOOD-COMPOSITION TABLES 



ANIMAL FOODS (AS PURCHASED) 



Calories 


MM 


C77 


v^ 


P 


Animal Foods 


w 


R 


Per pound 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Porfc, /res/i 


% 


% 


895 


I. 




: 3 


x 9 


Tenderloin 


67 




1320 


.8 




26 


14- 


Ham 


48 


„ 


1245 


.8 




24 


13 + 


Loin chops 


42 


20 


145° 


•7 




3° 


12 


Shoulder 
Salted, smoked 


50 


12 


1635 


4- 




33 


14 


Ham (smoked) 


35 


14 


1335 


6. 




27 


T 3 


Shoulder (smoked) 


37 


18 


2715 


4- 




62 


9 


Bacon (smoked) 


17 


S 


3555 


4-- 




86 


2 — 


Salt pork 
Sausage 


8 




"55 


3-+ 


1 


19 


20 


Frankfort 


57 




"55 


4- 




20 


18 


Bologna 


55 


3 


2075 


2. 


1 


44 


13 


Pork 
Soups 


40 




365 


1. 


6 


4 


5 


Meat stew 


85 




120 


1. 


1 




4 


Beef 
Fish 


93 




475 


•9 




4 


15 


Halibut 


62 


18 


275 


•9 




1 - 


13 


Perch (dressed) 


5i 


35 


220 


.8 






11 


Cod (dressed) 


59 


30 


325 


19. 






16 


Cod (salt) 


40 


30 


37° 


•7 




4 


10 


Mackerel 


40 


45 


380 


•7 




5 


9 


Shad (whole) 


35 


5o 


600 


2. 


3- 


4 


21 


Shad (roe) 


71 




755 


7- 




9 


21 


Herrings (smoked) 


x 9 


44 


9*5 


3- 




12 


22 


Salmon (canned) 


64 




95° 


5- 




1 2 


24 


Sardines (canned) 


54 


5 


340 


2.+ 


5 


1 


11 - 


Clams 


81 




200 


2.- 


1 - 


1 - 


8 


Crabs 


37 


52 


x 45 


.8 




1 - 


6 


Lobsters 


3i 


62 


225 


1. 


3 


1 


6 


Oyster solids 
Dairy products 


88 




34io 


3- 




85 


1 


Butter 


11 




865 


•5 


5- 


l 9 


3- 


Cream 


74 




310 


•7 


5 


4 


3 


Milk (whole) 


87 




165 


•7 


5 




3 + 


Skim milk 


9 1 




160 


•7 


5- 


1 - 


3 


Butter milk 


91 




1430 


2. 


54 


8 


9- 


Condensed milk 


3° 




2075 


4- 


4 


37 


28 


Cheddar cheese 


27 




1885 


4-- 


2 + 


34 


26 


Cream cheese 


34 





(Rearranged from Farmer 's Bulleti?i, No. 142, United States Department of Agriculture) 

Which animal foods contain carbohydrates ? In dairy products and fish 
they are forms of sugar. 



FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 



191 



FOOD-COMPOSITION TABLES VEGETABLE FOODS (AS PURCHASED) 



R 


W 


Vegetable Foods 


P 


F 


CH 


JOf 


Calories 


% 


% 


Cereals 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Per poji>id 




10 


Wheat 


12 


2- 


75 


1-3 


1680 




14 


Buckwheat 


6 


I 


78 


•9 


1605 




13 


Rye 


7 


I - 


79 


•7 


1620 




13- 


Cornmeal 


9 


2- 


75 


1. 


1635 




8 


Oatmeal 


17 


7 . 


66 


2. 


1800 




12 


Rice 


8 




79 


•4 


1620 




II 


Tapioca 






88 


.1 


1650 






Starch 






90 




1675 






Flours 














„ 


Entire wheat 


14 


2- 


7 2 


1. 


1650 




U 


Graham 


T 3 


2 + 


7i 


1.8 


1645 




12 


White (high) 


11 


1 


75 


•5 


1635 




12 


White (low) 


H 


2 


71 


•9 


1640 




IO 


Macaroni 
Bread, etc. 


13 


1 - 


74 


i-3 


i 6 45 




35 


White 


9 


1 


53 


1.1 


1200 




44 


Brown 


5 


2- 


47 


2.1 


1040 




36 


Graham 


9 


2- 


S 2 


i-5 


Ir 95 




38 


Whole wheat 


10- 


1 


5° 


i-3 


1130 




36 


Rye 


9 


1 - 


53 


i-5 


1 170 




20 


Cake 
Crackers 


6 


9 


63 


i-5 


1630 




7 


Cream 


10 


12 


70 


i-7 


1925 




5 


Oyster 


11 


11 


71 


2.9 


1910 




6 


Soda 
Sugar, etc. 

Molasses 

Candy 

Honey 

Maple sirup 
Starchy vegetables 


10 


9 


73 
100 
70 
96 
81 
7i 


2.1 


1875 
1750 
1225 
1680 
1420 
1250 




13 


' Beans (dried) 


2 3 


2 — 


60 


3-5 


1520 




70 


Beans (baked) 


7 


3 


20 


2.1 


555 




69 


Beans (shelled) 


7 


1 - 


22 


i-7 


540 


7 


83 


Beans (string) 


2 




7 


•7 


170 




10 


Peas (dried) 


25 


1 


62 


3- 


1565 




75 


Peas (shelled) 


7 


1 - 


17 


1. 


440 




85 


Peas (green) 


4 




10 


1.1 


235 




76 


Corn (green) 


3 


1 - 


20 


•7 


440 




76 


Succotash 


4 


1 


19 


•9 


425 


20 


63 


Potatoes 


2 




15 


.8 


295 


20 


55 


Potatoes (sweet) 


1 + 


1 - 




•9 


440 


20 


66 


Parsnips 


1 + 




11 


1.1 


230 


10 


79 


Onions 


1 + 




9 


•5 


190 



192 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



FOOD-COMPOSITION TABLES VEGETABLE FOODS (AS PURCHASED) 



Calories 


MM 


C77 


F 


p 


Vegetable Foods 


w 


R 


Per pound 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Nuts 


% 


% 


1775 


i-5 


*9 


29 


20- 


Peanuts 


1 


25 


1515 


1.1 


10- 


3° 


12- 


Almonds 


3 


45 


1485 


2. 


3-5 


34 


9- 


Brazil 


3- 


50 


'43° 


1.1 


6 


3 1 


8- 


Filberts 


2 


52 


73o 


•5 


3 


i s- 


7 


Walnuts (black) 


1 


74 


1250 


.6 


7- 


27 


7 


Walnuts (English) 


1 


58 


"45 


.8 


4 


26 


6 


Hickory- 


1 


62 


1465 


•7 


6 


33 


5 


Pecans 


1 


53 


1295 


•9 


14 


30 


3 


Coconuts 


7 


49 


2S65 


J -3 


3 2 


57 


6 


Coconut (prepared) 


4 




385 


•4 


1 - 


8 


4 


Butternuts 


1 


86 


9*5 


1.1 


35 


5- 


5 


Chestnuts 
Dried fruits 


38 


16 


1280 


2.4 


74 




4 


Figs 


19 




1275 


1.2 


7i 


3- 


2 


Dates 


14 


10 


1265 


3- 


69 


3 


2 


Raisins 


13 


10 


1.18S 




66 




2 


Apples 


28 




1125 


2.4 


63 


1 


5- 


Apricots 
Fresh fruits 


29 




295 


•4 


14 


1 




Grapes 


58 


25 


260 


.6 


14 




1 - 


Bananas 


49 


35 


395 


i-5 


13 






Plums 


78 




230 


•4 


J 3 




1 - 


Pears 


7 6 


10 


220 


.6 


13- 






Raspberries 


86 




190 




11 






Apples 


63 


25 


150 


•4 


9- 




1 - 


Oranges 


63 


27 


150 


.6 


7 


1 - 




Strawberries 


86 


5 


125 


•4 


6 


1 - 


1- 


Lemons 


63 


30 


80 




5 






Muskmelons 


45 


5° 


5o 


.1 


3- 






Watermelons 
Green Vegetables 


38 


59 


185 


1.2 


7- 




3-5 


Mushrooms 


88 




160 


•9 


8- 




1 + 


Beets 


70 


20 


155 


1.1 


7-5 






Carrots 


70 


20 


120 


.6 


6- 






Turnips 


63 


30 


100 


•4 


5- 




1 - 


Squash 


44 


50 


n5 


•9 


5 




1 + 


Cabbage 


78 


15 


100 


•5 


4 




1 - 


Tomatoes 


94 




95 


.6 


4 






Tomatoes (canned) 


94 




95 


2.1 


3 






Spinach 


92 




65 


.8 


3- 






Celery 


76 


20 


65 


•4 


3- 




1 - 


Cucumbers 


81 


15 


65 


.8 


3- 






Lettuce 


81 


»5 


60 


•4 








Rhubarb 


57 


40 



FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 



193 



MENUS — TYPES 



ffl?l 



ADJUSTMENTS 



Menus are the arranged meal-distribution of food. They 
are composed of groups of different foods. Menus should 
combine food palatably and so distribute it that it can be 
digested. Menus vary widely in type because adjusted to cli- 
mate, season, food-supply and economic circumstances. But 
the general suggestions offered below are basal to all menus 
scientifically selected to meet food-needs. 

Dinner is both the most substantial and elaborate meal. 
What the dinner is determines what the other meals should be. 

Daily Menus Basic Suggestions 

Bl'eakfast (For Adults) (For School Children) (For Little Children) 

Light — Fruit, buttered Milk, cereal, eggs, toast, Cereal porridge ; milk 

{pare), slightly cooked 
fresh eggs, oven toast 
or dry bread, fresh or 
freshly cooked ripe 
fruit (without skins or 
seeds) 



toast, coffee fruit 

Moderate — Cereal, cof- [Currently varied in kinds of 
fee, eggs, bread, fruit foods used and methods of 



Heavy '(for hard labor) — 
Cereal, coffee, meat, 
vegetable, bread, fruit 

Luncheon 

Summer — Thin soup, 
green vegetables, fruit 
salad, tea, hot bread or 
plain cake, fresh fruit 

Winter — Thick soup, 
starchy vegetables, 
egg- foods or sea-foods 

(Outdoor life) Cocoa, 



their preparation] 



No tea, no coffee, little 
uncooked or acid fruit, 
no highly seasoned 
food, no rich desserts 



No tea, no coffee, no fish, 
no pastry, no canned 
food, no extractive 
soups, no hot breads 
Milk soups, cocoa, meat Baked custard,plain cold 
and eggs alternating, cake, jams only home- 



oil dressings, vegeta- 
bles, bread, butter 
pancakes or tarts, fruit Supper— Modification 
of luncheon 



made. (Otherwise as 
for older children) 

Supper — Like breakfast 
above 



Dinner — (Manual laborers need dinner at noon and more food at all meals) 

Summer — Fresh fruit or thin soup ; poultry, roast, or steak ; fresh green, 
and starchy vegetables ; light salad or frozen dessert ; cream cheese 
and crackers ; coffee. Cold bread with dinner. 

Winter — Thick soup; bread; meat; starchy, green vegetables; substantial 
salad and light dessert or light salad and substantial dessert ; coffee. 



194 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




A DINNER-TABLE 




A LUNCHEON-TABLE 




A BREAKFAST-TABLE 



CONSTRUCTION 



DIETARIES 



Dietaries are the food-combinations selected to meet food- 
needs, as those of an individual or a family group. The foods 
composing a dietary are distributed into menus as meals. 

Distribution of food through the day, week, month, year, as 
well as the kinds, combination, and quantity needed in differ- 
ent periods of life, at different work, and in varying health are 
all questions to be answered practically in forming dietaries. 

Planned dietaries consider science-knowledge of food and 
body food-needs, but neither is fixed. Knowledge grows and 
needs change with altered conditions. 

Quantities of food consumed should vary mainly with 
amount of work done, physical growth occurring and season, 
rather than be controlled by expense incurred, as is usual 
with those laboring hardest and longest. 

Selection of Food-Combi?iations for Different Meals. 

(At what meals and for which age should the following foods be served ?) 
Milk, pea soup, tomato bouillon, clam broth, oyster stew, bean puree. 
Milk, tea, coffee, cocoa ; oven toast, toast, dry bread, hot breads. 
Beef, lamb, poultry, eggs ; green vegetables, starchy ; macaroni, rice. 
Salads, light, substantial ; sauces with oil, with vinegar. 
Cake plain, cold, warm, rich ; baked rice pudding, custard ; pastry. 
Gingerbread or sponge cake is palatable with apple sauce, blueberries, 

mountain cranberries. Name similar combinations. 
Ice-cream and cake make a heavy dessert ; fruit ices and lady-fingers a 

light ; fruit gelatine or fruit souffle or stewed fruit, a medium. 
Use one of each of the desserts suggested and make with it a menu for 

a light dinner, for a moderate, for a heavy. 
Make a menu for a light, moderate, heavy breakfast and luncheon with 

each of these dinner-menus. 
Decide which you would like. Try to have such a meal. Is it palatable ? 

Write on the basis suggested, different menus of many types, c/zoosing 
variety of foods from Tables 071 pp. iqo-iqj. 

FOOD SCIENCE— HUMAN NUTRITION 195 



DIGESTIBILITY 



KTf! 



IN GENERAL 



The digestibility of a food depends upon the degree to 
which its nutrients (nourishing constituents) can be secured 
from it by the body when in health. Digestibility of foods 
determines therefore the nourishment they yield. Science 
finds that all food-constituents, even in the same food, are 
not equally digestible. In food in general 91% protein is 
digested, 95% fat, 98% carbohydrate. 

Digestibility of Nutrients of Different Groups of Foods 



In Mixed Diet 


% 


In Foods Eaten Separately 


T 


V 


A 




Meat 


Eggs 


Milk 


Cereals 


Legumes 


Vegetables 


Fruits 


Sugars 


Starches 


92 


84 


97 


Protein 


97 


97 


97 


85 


78 


83 


85 






95 


90 


9S 


Fat 


95 


95 


95 


90 


90 


90 


90 






97 


97 


98 


CH 






98 


98 


97 


95 


90 


98 


98 



T, total; V, vegetable; A, animal food. Meat includes fish; milk includes butter. (After Atwater) 

Comparison of Digestibility of Nutrients of Specific Foods 



°Io 


Bread White 


Whole Wheat 


Potatoes 


Beans 


Peas 


Bananas 


Protein 

Fats 

CH 


88 
90 
98 


83 

95 


75 
99 


80 
98 
97 


83 

95 


85 
90 
90 



(After Olsen) 

Note different breads. Remember refuse and water are not included in 
nutrients of foods. The percentages given above are the usable 
proportion of the solid nourishing parts of foods. 

Time of Digestion of Animal Foods (After Thompson) 



Eggs (raw) \\ hr. 


Beef (raw or finely chopped) 2 hr. 


Eggs (cooked) 3I-5 hr. 


Beef (rare) 2\ hr. ; (well-done) 3 hr. 


Mutton (raw) 2 hr. 


Beef (thoroughly roasted) 4 hr. 


Pork (cooked) 3 hr. 


Veal (cooked) ?.\ hr. 



Some foods digest quickly and easily. Meats do. A food may digest 
relatively fully yet require much time and energy in digesting it. 
Cheese and beans do. 

Order of Digestibility of Animal Foods (Page 218) 



196 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



AIDS 



ffliH 



DIGESTIBILITY 



Food Characteristics that affect digestibility of food are in general : 

Structure of food (how food-constituents are held in food). 

Texture (fineness and compactness ; coarseness and looseness). Fine- 
grained food understimulates the digestive tract. Coarse may render 
it overactive, resulting in elimination of food undigested. 

Properties of food, as salts in milk and eggs, aid in keeping blood in 
condition for effective assimilation of food. Enzymes in food also 
aid digestion. Pineapple contains such an enzyme. It furthers the 
digestion of other foods. (Place a piece of meat between 2 slices 
of pineapple. Leave over-night. Examine next day.) Laxative 
foods contain substances that increase peristalsis. 

Palatability. Unappetizing food may decrease digestive juices. 

Digestibility of food may be furthered by : 

Preparation in cooking, that breaks up food, making it ready for diges- 
tion, and destroys bacteria that might disturb digestion or cause disease. 

Mastication of food breaks it up and so exposes it to the digestive juices. 

Combining foods so that digestive tract is used as a whole, as in mixed 
diet. Also supplementing foods deficient in any food-constituent 
with others containing this, as rice (often lacking in salts) with 
egg-yolk, barley foods, and lentils that add such salts as those lost. 

Quantity adjusted to need. Too little or too concentrated food in 
lacking bulk may cause constipation. Too much or excess of bulky 
food stretches and weakens the stomach, clogs the body with waste 
products, and causes food-fermentation. With a moderate amount of 
food yV to t\ more food is digested and is also more easily digested. 

Time and energy are both required to digest food. Different amounts 
of both are needed for different foods. Too rapid and too frequent 
eating as well as too much food weaken digestion. Adults usually 
need food 3 times daily at intervals of 4 to 5 hours. 

Food as eaten excites the flow of digestive juices, especially acid, liquid, 
or sweet foods. Soups act thus at the beginning of a meal. 

Water, a glassful at the beginning of a substantial meal, increases flow of 
digestion juices and renders them more destructive to bacteria. (Hall) 

Acids, fruits, or acid fluid food, as lemonade, in moderate quantity near 
the end of a meal, stimulate flow of gastric juice and increase the 
acid in it, so further digestion of food. (Hall) 

FOOD SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 197 



FOOD SEASONING 



KI74 



PROMOTING 



Natural flavor of food is nature's indication of the food 
needed and even of the amount needed. Seasoning, the 
French say, would better be reduced to salting only than be 
a mixture of seasonings that conceal natural food-flavors. 

Condiments that develop natural food-flavors are advisable. 
Some spices develop the flavors of each other and can be used 
together ; some foods do this, as cabbage and squash together. 

Seasoning should be incorporated in food as it is prepared, 
except where this will change unfavorably the constitution of 
foods. Salting string beans at the beginning of cooking tough- 
ens them. Salting meat before it is seared draws out the 
juices. Vanilla added to a hot mixture evaporates, because it 
itself vaporizes at relatively low temperature. 

Excessive seasoning may be destructive of food itself as 
well as of its flavor. By hardening fiber, food is rendered less 
digestible, so less nutritious. By artificial heightening of fla- 
vor overstimulation of the digestive tract increases appetite 
for artificial food and more food than is needed. Excess of 
seasonings also introduces substances into the digestive tract 
that it cannot take care of in quantity. These may harden the 
tissues of its walls or cause overactive peristalsis. 

As a child usually wishes to see sugar on a sweetened food, 
many adults desire to salt food. Though both salt and sugar 
are very necessary in a diet, in great excess they are harmful 
and may disorder digestion. It is important to cultivate a taste 
for well-seasoned food by eating it rather than becoming accus- 
tomed to flavorless food or excessive seasoning. 

Dressings on food, as cream and salad dressings, containing 
egg and oil or milk and flour increase nourishment as well as 
palatability by uniting the food-ingredients and seasoning or 
flavoring the foods. Tart food-dressings stimulate peristalsis. 

198 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



DIGESTION 



RTH 



PALATABILITY 



Palatability of food, that is, its agreeable effect, plays an 
important part in nutrition. But all food that is palatable is 
not necessarily wholesome. Such food-selection, preparation, 
service, are needed as will insure the fullest use of food in the 
body. Different persons like different foods. So long as va- 
riety is secured and convenience permits, such difference in 
taste should be respected, as this makes food more appetizing. 

A meal as a whole, as well as separate foods, needs to be palatable. 
All foods are not equally agreeable together or even one after another 
during the same day. The diet as a whole, too, needs to be palatable. 
Overchanging diet overtaxes the body to adjust to unaccustomed foods. 
Monotony in diet has been thought to deaden appetite for even naturally 
preferred foods. Science finds, however, that the same diet if adjusted to 
the person's needs does not prove unpalatable. But as it is difficult so 
to adjust diet that a few kinds of food essentially contain exactly the con- 
stituents needed, variety is more apt to achieve this. It also enables one 
to change to different foods as environment or illness may require. 

As seasoning may improve food-flavors, so the incidental accompani- 
ments of a meal may enhance its palatability. Many of the foods too 
commonly eaten between meals can bring flavor into meals and should 
be so used. Such are candies, fruits, nuts. But many of these are them- 
selves substantial foods, so must be used in small quantities or be served 
as a significant part of the meal with which they are eaten. Olives, for 
instance, when ripe, are a nutritious food ; nuts are, too. 

Refreshing rather than stimulating food is the need of the 
body. Green salads are refreshing and increase the palata- 
bility of diets that include them. Palatable food stimulates 
digestion by exciting an adequate flow of digestive juices. 

Foods all have their seasons of finest flavor. All are altered 
by their preparation. Poor cooking makes all food poor. All 
food-effects are somewhat influenced by food-service and social 
surroundings. Superior quality of food, pleasant flavor, pleas- 
ing appearance as served, make food palatable. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 1 99 



LIFE-FOOD 



RPI 



EXISTENCE 



Sustenance of the body is effected through the food eaten. 
The repair-food keeps the body alive, the fuel-food provides 
it with energy and body-heat. 

The tissues of the body in performing their functions break 
down into waste products. This process is called katabolism. 
This is a chemical change, that is, a change in the composi- 
tion of substances. All chemical change is accompanied by 
production of heat. Digestion of food is also a chemical 
change, so produces heat. Food elements are, through diges- 
tion, built up into body tissue. This is called anabolism. As 
life is lived this double process of breaking down and build- 
ing up tissue goes on. Both together are called metabolism. 

To build the body up as its living breaks it down, the food 
eaten must bring, in its heat value, the equivalent of the heat 
generated as the tissues break down. This is called maintain- 
ing the metabolic equilibrium. Every $ hoicrs 422 calories 
are produced by adult living and must be supplied by food. 
Any ivork done re qj tires further heat-energy. 

Well-nourished bodies produce the same quantity of heat 
per square unit of surface and so for the same size have the 
same heat-need. In the morning, fifteen hours after eating, 
the heat production of the body is least. A man at complete 
rest who weighs approximately 154 lb. (70 kg.) produces in 
his process of just living 70 calories per hour ox 1680 calories 
in 24 hours. This is called the basal heat-production. If food 
is eaten for simple existence, the work done in eating is about 
109; of this basal heat-production, or 7 calories per hour or 
168 calories per day. The existence requirement is therefore 
1850 — calories per day for an average-sized man at rest. 

Exercise is necessary to life. This is work for the body 
and requires food fuel for the heat-energy needed. 

200 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



ENERGY 



\Wr\ 



WORK-FOOD 



Sedentary occupation and two hours' exercise increase man's 
daily food-need from 1850 calories to 2500 calories to main- 
tain repair and provide nutriment and body-heat. 

(Specific facts on life-food are from Dr. Graham Lusk's " Fundamental Basis of Nutrition.") 

The food-need of workers has been closely studied. It has 
been found that the amount of muscular effort exacted by differ- 
ent kinds of work requires differing quantities of food-energy. 

For Occupational Energy-Requirement, see p. 222. 

The quantity of energy-food (carbohydrates and fats) is the 
chief change work requires in diet. But in hard muscular labor 
a constant relatively high supply of building-food is necessary 
(protein, .25 lb. per day). This is not only for tissue-repair but 
also because protein facilitates utilization of all food eaten. 
The workers it is who need a liberal meat- and egg-supply. 

Both sugar and fat can be digested in larger proportion by those at 
hard work than by others. The high heat of fat and the rapid heat-giving 
of sugar make these desirable work-foods. Those underfed in winter 
always consume sugar in abnormal quantity whenever it becomes available. 

Starchy foods are work-foods of unique value, because starch gives 
sustaining energy— energy that lasts. As the amount of food of the work- 
diet should be large and the working body is active, food with little cel- 
lulose (woody fiber) is advisable. When it is present in large quantity it 
may hasten the food through the alimentary tract of those at hard work, 
before it has had time to be digested. Similarly the workers find white 
bread, not whole wheat, is the bread they should eat. Potatoes and rice 
have such fully available starch as to be most desirable work-foods. Their 
protein that is soluble also makes them valuable in work-diets. 

Green vegetables and fruits are desirable in all diets and need to be 
obtainable by workers. 

Much water and air in abundance are essential for the com- 
plete utilization of so much food as workers need. Time to mas- 
ticate and digest food is a health-requirement for all that live. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 201 



CHILDHOOD 



ffllH 



GROWTH 



Children differ from adults in more than size and strength. 
They are themselves still being physically formed. They are 
not simply growing larger but some parts of them are also 
being made. Teeth, for instance, develop after birth. In in- 
fancy the digestive agencies are not those of adult life. A 
child under nine months lacks ptyalin (a digestive ferment), 
which aids in digesting starch, so should not be fed starch. 
The child-body is more largely water than that of the adult. 
This is one reason why it has less resistance to infectious dis- 
eases. Proper nourishment increases physical resistance. 

Development of unformed parts of the child-body, growth 
of all the body, need of learning to live and gradually to eat 
the foods usual for humanity, are some of the physical occu- 
pations of childhood. Exercise of muscle, sleep, mental work 
in exploring and understanding the environment, also affect the 
functioning of the body and its food-need as the child grows. 

Effect of food is more immediate in childhood than it always 
is later. When undernourished, children are not well nor well- 
grown. Science finds child-health depends more upon food 
than was realized earlier. The food- habits formed are scarcely 
less important than the foods eaten. To make health for 
children they must be fed according to their need. 



Quantities of Food for Children 



(Weight as Purchased) 





Amount Daily 




Child .... 2 yrs. 
Child .... 2-5 yrs. 
Child .... 6-9 yrs. 
Girl .... 10-12 yrs. 
Boy .... 10-1 1 yrs. 


lib. 
i£lb. 
if lb. 

2 lb. 

2 lb. 


3 lb. 
2f lb. 

2* lb. 
2* lb. 
2* lb. 


15-16 yrs Boy 

1 5-16 yrs Girl 

13-14 yrs Boy 

13-14 yrs Girl 

At 1 2 yrs Boy 



With much outdoor life such as all children should have, these quantities 
may be increased. Exercise and air aid in full use of food by the body. 



202 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



LIVING 



KTH 



CHILD -FOOD 



The kinds of food children are fed are most important 
because (i) children are not equally able at all ages to eat 
all foods ( b Jf e w ), (2) foods affect one another very differently 

/an excess of carbohydrates increases fermentation, so forms acids in the body. Acids dis-\ 
Vsolve mineral food-salts and carry from the body those needed for bone-growth and tissue/' 

(3) food-constituents in different foods are not exactly alike 

/all proteins are not ; vegetable proteins are less complete than animal ; corn contains\ 
Vprotein for repair-maintenance but not for growth ; milk contains the growth-protein/ ' 

Growth depends upon the growth-impulse in the living organ- 
ism and an adequate supply of building- and growth-food. 

Modern food-investigation has discovered that some foods 
have a growth-influence that usual building-foods lack. Butter- 
fat and egg-yolk are such grozvth-foods. No other fats, either 
animal or vegetable, are found to possess this special growth- 
power upon the body, so in this respect there cannot be an 
adequate substitute for butter, at least while the body is 
growing. It is therefore especially important that butter and 
eggs constantly be in the diet for all from infancy to maturity. 

Science does not find that the growth-impulse becomes 
inactive save as it has had expression in growth. Yet it is 
not usual for those denied the conditions for growth in child- 
hood and youth to enjoy these later. 



Food-Constituents of Nutrients of Child-Diet 



(After Olsen) 



Age 


P 


F 


CH 


Calories 


CH 


F 


P 


Age 


i| yrs. 


43 


35 


IOO 


910 


1877 


170 


48 


79 


14-15 yrs. 


2 yrs. 


44 


3<> 


no 


972 


1737 


245 


47 


72 


u-i3yrs. 


3 yrs. 


5o 


3» 


I20 


1050 


1270 


150 


44 


bo 


8-9 yrs. 


4 yrs. 


53 


42 


135 


"57 


1224 


H5 


43 


50 


5 y r s. 



Grams are used as the unit of weight (roz.= 28.35 grams). Basis for table above was, in 
grams, CH 420 — F 100 — P 100, for adults. 

Diet-experts differ somewhat in the standards they advise. See p. 223. 

Heat value (calories) varies less for the different ages than food-weight. 
Compare these in tables. Note different proportions of food- 
constituents at different ages. 



FOOD-SCIENCE— HUMAN NUTRITION 



203 



CHILD-DIET 



RUH 



AGE COMBINATIONS 



Nature always does much to sustain strength and to restore 
health after disease. Diet aids nature when it is such as can 
nourish the body during growth and in illness, but food that 
overtaxes a growing or diseased body by excess or wrong food 
hinders growth and return to health and may leave the body 
permanently weakened. 

It is important the growing body be progressively fed but 
not more rapidly than it has the power to use foods new to 
it. Type of food-preparation needs to change too, from liquid 
food to soft foods, then finely chopped and finally coarser, 
dried food, compelling mastication. 

Foods Needed Child-Age 



Before 9 months — Milk. At 9 months — Milk, gruel (cereal), gelatin ; 
water between meals. 
1 yr. — Milk, gruel (cereal), broth (chicken or mutton). 
\-\\ yrs. — Add butter and ripe peach (skinned), 
i^-ijyrs. — Add potato (baked), orange juice. 
\\-2 yrs. — Add egg (soft). 

z\ yrs. — Increase variety of similar foods (notebelowfoods excluded). 
2^-3^ yrs. — Add digestible, young, fresh vegetables, as peas, beans, 
squash, and, every 2 or 3 days, meat (as chicken, mutton 
chop, beefsteak, roast). 
3I-5 yrs. — Eggs and meat on alternate days. Light dessert, as custard, 
tapioca, gelatin. 
5-7 yrs. — Greater variety, but observe exclusions stated below. 
7-1 1 yrs. — All foods permitted earlier, but more substantial diet. Few 
foods at a meal, but great variety in meals so as to form 
taste for all wholesome foods. 
1 1 -1 4 yrs. — Girls' and boys' food-needs begin to differ. Girls need \ less 
food. Girls prefer more delicate and less highly-flavored 
foods. Girls tend to undereat. Boys often overeat meat ; 
this may cause eczema. Diet should not be too largely ani- 
mal food, though more is needed now. See page opposite. 
14-16 yrs. — Food-needs of both boys and girls approach those of adult- 
life. Fate eating at this age and stimulating foods and 
drinks will ruin the constitution. Regulation of life- 
processes now gives tone to the body, strength, and con- 
trol for maturity. 



(Adapted from " What Children Should Eat." — Greer) 

204 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



RESTRICTIONS 



HI?I 



CHILD-DIET 



Nature requires that food be so adjusted to the growing 
body that the diet not only supply the changing body-need as 
the body grows but also aid the body-processes. All foods 
not possible as yet for the growing body to digest must be 
withheld during growth. The food-restrictions in childhood 
are no less important than in disease, when nature necessitates 
the regaining of lost strength before the body can again be 
normally taxed by work and life. 

Diet may affect directly health of teeth. It should contain starchy food 
stimulating mastication (as brown bread), and fresh fruit, as the apple, at 
the end of the meal. This exercises the mouth so that it frees itself of 
food, and leaves it fresh and physiologically clean. — Dr. Sims Wallace. 

Diet-Exclusions During Childhood 



Omit until after the Second Teeth 

Fat, except cream, butter, oil (as prescribed) ; other fats are less di- 
gestible (butter fat promotes growth). 

Acid foods (tomatoes, vinegar, pickled foods); acids remove from the 
body salts which promote bone-growth. 

Woody-fiber vegetables, as cucumbers, radishes, celery (raw) ; carrots 
permitted if digested. 

Fresh, warm breads. Preserved foods of all kinds. Bread not easily 
crumbed is not reached by the digestive juices. 

Omit throughout Childhood 

Pies, pastry of all kinds, rich cake, rich nuts, gravies, dressings, and 

heavy foods. 
Sugar is needed but not in excess ; candy (only simple and homemade). 
Coffee, tea, and all beverages except water, milk, cocoa. Coffee and 

tea stimulate but do not nourish ; tea is constipating, so holds toxins 

of waste products in the body. 



Food intoxication (see p. 207) 

For children — The special diet indicated on page 207 is advised for two 
months after an attack, then 1 egg a day ; two weeks later, milk with 
4% fat ; two weeks later, sugar cereals and cooked fruits slightly. In 
six months return to regular diet, but with little sweet food. If illness 
returns upon adding any food, exclude it (Backford). During such 
attacks plenty of air and little exercise are advised. 

Mineral salts are a most definite growth-need. Lime aids skeleton-growth. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 205 



ILLNESS 



fflfl 



CONDITIONS 



Illness is the result of the body's not working well in its 
living-processes. The cause may be (i) absence of conditions 
necessary for wholesome living, as lack of proper diet ; (2) in- 
fection, as bacteria in food, air, water ; (3) disordered organs 
resulting from work-strain or past disease ; (4) weakness of 
physical constitution, as tendency to tuberculosis. 

During illness the diseased condition usually needs to be 
combated by medical means, but the food and conditions of 
living must also be adjusted to the prevailing state of the 
body. What changes in food and living are required by the 
changed conditions of the body, the physician must determine. 

Food during serious disease must be accurately adjusted to 
the exact physical need. Sometimes disease so changes the 
body that special types of foods are particularly unfavorable. 
Some disease so wastes the body that it needs especial build- 
ing. Disease of all kinds affects digestion, so necessitates 
modification of diet and most intelligent care of food for inva- 
lids. Complete freshness and cleanliness of food, person, and 
surroundings, with habitual proper nutrition, avert disease and 
give physical resistance to infection. 

Disease introduces poisonous substances into the body. The 
weakened body usually fails of power to remove these, or even 
those of the waste products of its natural living. 

Water is therefore generally needed in increased quantity, a?id food, 
in most cases of acute illness, in decreased {also in liquid form unless 
the physician otherwise prescribes). 

Strength must not, however, be lost through unnecessary 
lack of nutrition. Food-habits should be as little disturbed as 
the conditions of the illness permit. 

Convalescence — the period of returning strength after ill- 
ness — requires that food be plentiful but easily digested. 

206 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 




A TEA-TRAY 



NEEDS 



FfiH 



DIETS IN ILLNESS 



General diets for illness (see below) need careful adjust- 
ment for different individuals. A body incapacitated by illness 
usually needs foods it can easily digest. Some foods especially 
needed in illness often require special preparation to make 
them digest ; milk may. 

Liquid diet is usual in acute disease. It is advisable whenever a patient 
is in bed, and in the late afternoon for all not well. It consists of 
Water, milk, whey, barley-water, gruel, beef-juice, broth, egg-white. 
Light diet is used whenever substantial food is needed without exacting 
the exertion necessary to digest usual solid food. It consists of 
Eggs (soft), milk toast, milk soups/broths (seasoned), beef (scraped), 
oysters, chicken, simple puddings (as soft custards, tapioca), jel- 
lies of gelatin, digestible fruits. 

Convalescent diet is varied with the disease, so needs to be prescribed 
by the physician. Few and digestible foods need to be given, in 
small quantities but frequently. This consists of 

Eggs, oysters, clams, meats (tender), fish (fresh), readily digested 
vegetables (as potato baked, rice), bread (well-baked), fruits 
(fresh and cooked), milk. 

Laxative Foods (see p. 45) Water in Lllness (see p. 206) 

Diarrhea diet — Thoroughly cooked spinach, turnip greens, or mustard 
tops. One tablespoonful or more 4 times daily for 1-2 weeks, then 
with breakfast and luncheon for several weeks after return to regu- 
lar diet. (Preferably no other food, but if any only little dry toast or 
corn bread.) Persons suffering from diarrhea are very sensitive to 
cold, even to cold food (Wilson). 
Food intoxication — When food is not digesting (causing eruption, etc.) 
Avoid — Sweets, fats, eggs, raw fruits (especially oranges), straw- 
berries, rhubarb, tomatoes, salads, shell-fish, tea, coffee, pastry, 
gravies, butter, cream, cod-liver oil, eggs even in cooked foods. 
Allow — Milk (skimmed), beef, mutton, fowl, fish in moderation, 
cereals, bread, and all vegetables not excluded above, cooked 
fruits, thick soups. (If cereal is sweetened, saccharin should be 
used instead of cane sugar.) 

Digestibility of Foods (see p. 218) 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 207 



DISEASE-RESISTANCE 



RTH 



IN GENERAL 



Resistance to disease is secured by building a strong body, 
providing it with fresh, pure food properly adjusted to the age, 
sex, size, work of the person, and to climate and season, and 
by insuring an environment of such wholesomeness and clean- 
liness as will supply to all pure water and air and stamp out 
disease-sources, such as unsanitary disposal of garbage. 

Preventive medicine removes disease-dangers from the 
environment and ina'eases body-resistance. Conditions of liv- 
ing are of first importance. No body can be well nourished 
save as food is available. Protection against disease comes 
with provision for living. Illness is found to be social in its 
effects and causes. An ill person is a general health-menace. 

A debilitating disease prevalent in the South, science says, requires, 
for elimination of it, nourishing food, sanitary disposal of sewage, and that 
children should wear shoes to prevent contagion from soil-contamination 
by waste products from those so diseased. 

Natural immunity to disease-infection increases for children 
with age. The composition of the body changes ; its water- 
content decreases. The excess of water in an infant's body 
lowers resistance to infection. To lessen this, milk may be de- 
creased for a child after one year to the amount in adult-diet. 
Carbohydrate food increases the water in the body (Cernzy). 

Constitutional inferiority opens a body to disease. Diet may 
minimize this. Secretions of the ductless glands of the body 
are now known to affect body-growth and health. Disturbed 
nutrition may cause defective development of these glands and 
in turn be caused by their resulting defective functioning. Ma- 
ture health is thus endangered and work-endurance lessened. 

Mineral salts effect nutrition as well as furnish material for 
teeth and bone-growth. A mixed diet provides food salts dur- 
ing adult-health, but not always in illness and childhood. 

208 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



SPECIFIC NEEDS 



KTPI 



DISEASE-RESISTANCE 



The growth-impulse can operate to mature the body only 
as the foods that will further growth and build tissue, both 
bone and muscle, are supplied for the use of the body in its 
growth. The kind of food is therefore as vital a need as 
the amount, particularly during the years of physical forma- 
tion. Not only strength and health during growth but later 
too are effected by proper growth-diet. 

Overrestriction of diet undernourishes the body, leaves it undeveloped 

and open to disease. 
Maladjustment of diet produces malnutrition that causes malformation 

or malfunctioning of the body which may last throughout life. 
Selection of proper food and thorough mastication result in nutrition. 

During physical development all constitutions are delicate, 
so easily harmed. To grow physically and into mature health 
with high resistance to disease requires science-guided care 
in childhood and youth, also during disease. 

An ice-bag applied to a child's head during fevers may make its body- 
temperature subnormal for life. 

Reenforcing a delicate child's diet by feeding 1-2 T cream in mid- 
afternoon, as is desirable, may disorder digestion if rest is not 
enforced for 1-2 hours afterwards. 

Adult-treatment of childhood and youth, like adult-diet, 
may not only do injury at the time but so weaken the consti- 
tution as to undermine later health. 

Starving a child in illness may injure its intestines, while such treatment 
in adult-illness may be desirable. Sunshine, so important in plant- 
growth, is a powerful agency in tissue-building of children in need 
of much tissue-repair, as is a tuberculous child. But sun treatment 
(heliotherapy) for adults is not so assuredly advisable. 

Exercise, as well as food, is necessary to growth and to 
bodily habits of health. But such competitive sports as may 
strain the heart, as can football, may injure growing boys. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 209 



LIFE-EXPECTATION 



Rfl 



CHANGES — STATUS 



The population of the United States of America is ap- 
proaching 100,000,000. In 19 10 those over 70 years num- 
bered 2,270,021. There were about 2,500,000 births and 
about 1,350,000 deaths. 
Causes of Death U.S.A. — 1912 



Accidents 
Tuberculosis . . 
Heart diseases 


. . 182,000 
. . 1 54,000 
. . 1 50,000 


Nervous diseases . . 
Pneumonia .... 
Intestinal diseases 


138,000 

132,000 

. 123,000 



Numbers are approximate. (Hoffman's " Chances of Death and Ministry of Health ") 

Of those that died in 19 12 about 18% (or 236,500) were 
under one year; 25% (or 329,400) were under 5 years. 
Only about one half of the deaths (57%) were therefore of 
those over 5 years. Yet it is in the combat of infectious 
diseases, which are the chief health dangers of the young, that 
science has made its greatest medical achievement. As 
science has succeeded in this it has increased the probable 
length of life for the young. 
Expectation of Life New York Life-Table 



1879-1881 


Age Range 


1909-1911 


Gain 


Loss 


41 yrs. 
32.6 « 
23.9 « 


To 5 yrs. 

25-30 yrs. 

40-45 yrs. 

After 40 yrs. Constant loss 

At 85 yrs. 


52 yrs. 
34-3 " 
234;' 


1 1 yrs. 
1.7 " 


6 mos. 

3i y rs - 


Before 40 yrs. (women) Life-Expectancy 29 yrs. This is a^a*« from 1881-1911 

(men) " 25 yrs. and more than for men 
After 40 yrs. (women) 18 yrs. This is a loss from 1881-191 1 
" (men) " 15 yrs. and more than for men 



Death after 50 years is due mainly to degenerative diseases, 
especially of heart and kidneys. Science ascribes this to 
strenuous life, lack of exercise in the open air, excess of 
nitrogenous food and spiritous liquids. 



210 



FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



CONDITIONS — NEEDS 



ffifl 



OLD AGE 



Old age brings a body that is gradually wearing out. This 
occurs naturally but is hastened by work- or anxiety-strains 
or earlier illnesses. Many body-processes become slower. 
Health in age requires increased oxygen-supply, simple diet 
and life, and exercise according to individual conditions. 

Some body-organs lose power to function fully — the heart 
usually does ; others may degenerate and lessen disease-re- 
sistance or cause illness. The kidneys act sluggishly and are 
unable to throw off so readily fluids and salts. Salt should be 
lessened in the diet. If the waste products of body-metabolism 
are not completely eliminated, they become poisons. The food- 
intake in age, especially of protein, should not be more than 

P, 70 gms. ; P, 140 gms. ; CH, 90-160 gms. (Hirschfeld) ; that is, 
P, 2i oz. ; P, 4f + oz. ; CH, 3-5 oz. 

Body-deterioration usually includes hardening of the arte- 
ries. If extreme, less water is advisable, as dilation of inelastic 
vessels produces overstrain. When arteries harden, foods with 
lime are inadvisable. For Lime in Food, see p. 219. 

Diseases of the respiratory tract are also a general danger 
in old age. (Scott's " The Road to Healthy Old Age.") 

Human bodies, like animal, tend to increase fat with age. 
Excess fat interferes with body-processes and causes physical 
degeneration. Obesity is therefore to be avoided. Diet needs 
to be selected to prevent corpulency ; less food is needed. 
Water taken with food increases body-fat ; at noon not more 
than half a glass should be taken ; at night none until 1 \ 
hours after eating. The evening meal should be very light 
and without bread, preferably of only one food, either vege- 
table or fruit. Sleep should not follow eating immediately, 
for body-secretions are then inactive, so food fails to digest. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 21 1 



YOUTH-DIET 



fflrl 



DEVELOPMENT 



Youth is a period of significant physical development. 
Body-growth is being completed ; the organs of the maturer 
functions of the body are developing ; the body is maturing 
physically. The individual's mental powers are seeking more 
definite expression. The social relations of life are becoming 
more conscious. Life at this age is therefore full of newness 
and moves rapidly in its changes. 

The growth-impulse of the body needs plentiful nourish- 
ment for free and full growth. Whether physical growth that 
is delayed by lack of nourishment can be effected after indefi- 
nite postponement is not yet known. 

Ductless glands of the body play a more important part in 
its development and health than was realized earlier. The 
thymus gland delays too early development of the later body- 
functions. The thyroid gland promotes the differentiation of 
developing organs. Intricate interrelations are found to exist 
between all such glands. Their wholesome functioning is of 
greatest importance to growth and mature health. Healthful 
youth furthers this. Disturbing illness prevents normal de- 
velopment and functioning of these glands. 

Food that is strengthening and sustaining rather than stim- 
ulating is the need of youth. Such specific growth foods as 
egg-yolk and butter-fat should be abundant in youth-diet. 
Mineral salts too are particularly needed. Excess of food and 
starvation alike remove these from the body. The body at this 
time is not very resistant to disease. In fevers the nitrogen- 
waste is extreme. Science now finds this lessened by feeding 
carbohydrates in abundance. This must, however, be under 
a physician's direction. Both scientists and physicians are 
now interested in diet as never before. 

See Sensible Diet, p. 213 ; Diet-Quantities, p. 219. 

212 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



MATURITY 



HTTPf 



ADULT -DIET 



Adult-life is the time of greatest responsible effort. Health 
is basal to energy. It is secured for the well-developed body 
by scientific regulation of diet and of habits of life and work. 

Adult-diet is more affected by occupation than that at other 
periods. Lighter work needs both less food and lighter. 

Habitual diet often seems to satisfy the needs of the body 
more fully than science would anticipate. The Japanese that 
are accustomed to a small protein intake seem to flourish upon 
it. Scientific experiment shows that in adult-life less protein 
than is commonly eaten is advisable. A very small amount 
(20 gms. or 1— oz. daily) has been found adequate to sustain 
life and light work. Though great reduction of protein is not 
generally advised, a decreased intake should be tried. Adult- 
life is the safe period for scientific experimentation with diet. 

Sensible diet — To keep warm and give energy for work, Dr. E. L. 
Fish advises eating energy or fuel foods — potatoes, bread, cereals, corn- 
bread, sirup, and other sugars. To keep muscles and organs in repair, 
eat a limited and fixed amount of repair foods — meat, eggs, cheese, nuts, 
flesh foods, peas, beans, and lentils. Do not increase the repair foods 
with increase in work or exposure to cold ; increase the fuel-foods. 

Eat fruit every day. Canned fruits are good. Cooked fruit is often 
better than dubious fresh fruit, but some fresh fruit is essential. Eat 
fresh, green vegetables whenever you can get them. Thoroughly wash 
all raw foods. Eat some bulky vegetables of low food-value, like carrots, 
parsnips, spinach, turnips, squash, and cabbage to stimulate the bowels 
and give flavor to the diet and prevent overnourishment. Eat slowly and 
taste your food well and it will slide down at the proper time. Do not 
nibble your food timorously ; eat it boldly and confidently. A glass or 
two of water at meals is not harmful if you do not wash your food down 
with it. An unsocial dinner table will upset all the food-values. 

First, last, and all the time, be moderate ; avoid overnourishment and 
overweight. Restrict fuel foods and burn up body-fat if tending toward 
obesity. See Fatigue, p. 216; Body as a Chemical Laboratory, p. 216; 
Diet Quantities, p. 219. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 213 



FOREIGN FOODS 



FTTH 



OCCURRENCE 



Many foods no longer considered foreign because so usual 
in the home market are produced only in other lands, as cocoa, 
tea, coffee. Food-sources and food-exchange disclose such 
facts about the origin of foods. Food luxuries and delicacies, 
as spices and tropical fruits, have long been transported as 
nations have grown in wealth. But only with extended com- 
merce have imports and exports of substantial foods, as beef 
from Argentina, become significant food-trade practices. 

And only with migration of workers from land to land are 
the staple, fundamental articles of diet of different peoples 
disseminated. The foods and methods of preparation are 
brought by the immigrating people and are gradually absorbed 
by those among whom they come to live. 

The population of America is composed of the greatest 
variety of peoples. See p. 185. Only half is native-born of 
native parentage ; the other half is from all nations. 

Foreign-born residents number about one tenth and are 
distributed as follozvs : 



German 


2,501,000 


English 


. 900,000 


Austro-Hungarian . . 


1,671,000 


Scotch and Welsh 


. 500,000 


Russian 


1 ,602,000 


Belgian and Dutch . 


. 170,000 


Irish 


1,352,000 


Orientals 


. 146,863 


Italian 


1,343,000 


French 


. 117,000 


Scandinavian-Danish . 


1,250,000 







The native foods of such a population include most of those 
known to present-day civilization. 

The varieties, qualities, and preparations of cheese, rice, 
breads, starchy-vegetable foods (as macaroni, semolina, po- 
lenta), of green vegetables (as spinach, Swiss chard) and sal- 
ads (as chicory, romaine, escarole), and of diet-accessories (as 
olives, olive oil), are relatively recent as American foods. 



214 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



COMPARISON 



F=H?I 



FOOD OF ALL NATIONS 



For the masses in all lands the usual diet is still mainly 
of foods locally and inexpensively produced. Transported or 
expensive foods become available only with increasing pros- 
perity. Consumption of these is therefore an index of this. 

Meat, the most costly of common foods, has become more 
widespread in its use, though the amount eaten is somewhat 
controlled by climate, and its use by individuals is decreased 
where diet is directed by science. By workers as a class it 
is needed in larger quantity than by others, whose building food 
may come somewhat more largely from other protein foods. 

Scientific investigation is showing the food-consumption 
of different nations. 



Meat-Consumption (per Capita Annually) 



1910-1913 



Australia 


250 lb. 


Belgium and Holland 75 lb. 


Spain 


49 lb. 


United States 


130 M 


France 74 " 


Russia 


48 « 


Germany 


115 " 


Austria-Hungary 64 " 


Italy 


2 3 


England 


105 M 









In Germany over three times as much meat is now eaten 
as a century ago ; then it was little more than in Italy now. 

German Meat-Consumption 181 6-1 907 



Munich ~1 
Augsburg > 80.2 kilos 



Nuremberg J 



Berlin 

Karlsruhe f- 79.9 kilos 

Mannheim 



Konigsberg 40.7 kilos 



Meat Consumed by Workers and Others (per Capita Yearly) 



Artisans 44.8 kilos 

Laborers 16.5 " 

(farm and day) 



Middle class 

Lower 15 kilos 
Upper 10.5 " 



Higher class 12 kilos 
[kilo = 2.2 lb.] 



(All data from Professor Max Rubner's "Changes in the Food of the Masses.") 

Similar studies for other nations have not been made so 
complete as this on meat-consumption. 



FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 



215 



FATIGUE — REST BODY AS A CHEMICAL LABORATORY 

Fatigue. Work performed by any one of the body-cells produces 
waste products and other changes in the cells. Up to a certain limit, 
work, with the resulting changes in the cells, is beneficial and improves 
the physical condition of the cells, but when the work is excessive, too 
prolonged, or too fast, waste products begin to accumulate, the cells be 
come exhausted, the proper changes fail, and if the cells are not properly 
rested, damage results. If the work is continued without proper rest, 
early breaking down and failure of the individual to perform his task are 
the final results. — B. S. Warren in Public-Health Report. 

Rest in its effect upon the body has been experimentally studied by 
science. At the end of a week of monotonous work the reactions of the 
body are distinctly more sluggish than at the beginning, after a day of 
change. The sensitiveness and elasticity of the body as well as its energy 
are thus revived. One day of rest in seven science considers needed for 
preservation of body-elasticity and recuperative power. Recreation, not 
inactivity, is the body's weekly rest-need. The body that does not change 
its activity not only loses its power to change but also wears out soon. 

Further study is being made of different daily activities to ascertain 
the hours of work propitious for health ; also to what kinds of recreation 
the body makes the fullest wholesome response. 

It has long been known that eight to nine hours of sleep are required 
daily to give the adult body healthful activity in its living-processes. 

The body is a great che7nical laboratory which is constantly dealing 
with a variety of chemical compounds, and the processes are of a com- 
plex and unique nature. . . . The proteins, the carbohydrates, fats, etc. 
have to undergo many changes in the course of their amalgamation 
with the tissues of the body. They are ultimately subjected to regres- 
sive (disintegrating) processes and are eliminated from the body in the 
form of relatively simple compounds, such as carbonic acid, urea, and 
uric acid. This long series of physiologic changes, with the intermedi- 
ate products, is at present only known to us in part. . . . This chain of 
events may result in the production not only of useful and indifferent 
substances but also of injurious and toxic bodies ; while any check to 
the normal processes of elimination may lead to an accumulation in the 
system of normal waste products and a consequent intoxication (poison- 
ing). — Allan Macfadyen in Clinical Journal. 

216 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



LIFE-SIGNIFICANCE DIGESTION 

Humankind digests its food with less expenditure of energy 
than do animals. It therefore has more energy for other uses. 
Human beings can do more work and endure more fatigue, 
also exposure, than any other living creature of similar size 
because less taxed and occupied with digestion. The human 
digestive tract is prepared to utilize, not only with relative ease 
but also relative completeness, edible plant and animal foods. 

Though body-constituents and food-constituents are the 
same, food cannot without change be used by the body. 
Digestion is the body-process of changing food into the 
forms necessary for body-utilization. Food to be digested 
must be made soluble in the body so it can pass through the 
wall of the blood-vessels into the blood-stream that carries it 
throughout the body. 

Of the five food-constituents two only, mineral salts and 
water, pass into the blood unchanged. Proteins, carbohy- 
drates, fats, must be changed by the digestive juices and 
ferments before they can be utilized by the body. 

Digestion, the process that produces these food-changes, is 
effected through the operations of the digestive tract. Though 
there is more consciousness of food when it is in the mouth 
than elsewhere there is less happening to it then than later. 
As it passes down the alimentary tract the digestive activity 
increases. Food is retained in the mouth only a very short 
time even when thoroughly masticated, whereas it remains in 
the stomach from 2 to 5 hours and usually takes about 2 days 
to travel the entire length of the intestine (12 hours in the 
small intestine and 36 hours in the large). 

Food is eaten at intervals of '4 to 5 hours during the day, 
and food-waste should be removed from the body once in 
24 hours, preferably in the morning after breakfast. 

FOOD SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 217 



h I PI FOOD -UTILIZATION h I M 



The senses of smell and taste, Dr. W. Sternberg insists, recognize 
chemical changes in food more sensitively than these can be detected 
with chemical tests. In warmed-over dishes, especially vegetables, some 
chemical change has occurred. This change renders them less whole- 
some, he states, for the person that finds them less palatable. Continued 
loss of appetite leads to some disease of dietary deficiency that is even 
less easily remedied than diseases caused by overeating, serious as these 
are. The science of cookery is, he concludes, far more than applied 
chemistry, physics, and application of heat. It includes applied physi- 
ology of the senses, applied aesthetics, and applied psychology, he says, 
and is a matter of taste in the widest sense of the term. 

Digestibility of foods, though differing somewhat for individuals, has 
been determined in general by artificial digestion (their solubility in 
chemically produced digestive juices) and experimental digestion (their 
utilization by the body tested by comparison of food-intake and waste- 
outgo). The tabulated results are suggestive in selecting dietaries. 
Digestibility of Nutrients of Different Groups of Foods and Com- 
parison of Specific Foods, p. 196; Food-Characteristics as Aids 
to Digestibility, p. 197; Digestibility of Fruits, p. 44; Time of 
Digestion of Eggs, p. 109; of Animal Foods, p. 196. 

Order of Digestibility of Animal Foods (After Thompson) 



Oysters, eggs (raw or soft-boiled), sweetbreads; 

Whitefish (boiled or broiled), as bluefish, shad, weakfish, smelts ; 

Chicken (boiled or broiled), roast beef (lean), eggs (scrambled or omelet); 

Mutton (roasted or boiled), squab, partridge, bacon (crisp) ; 

Fowl (roasted), capon, turkey (boiled) ; tripe, brains, liver ; 

Lamb (roasted), chops (mutton or lamb), corned beef, veal ; 

Ham, duck, snipe, venison, rabbit, game ; 

Salmon, mackerel, herring, goose (roasted) ; 

Lobster, crabs, pork ; smoked, dried, pickled fish or meats. 



The meats that digest less readily increase the danger of gastro- 
intestinal disturbance. Delicate, tender meats (porterhouse steak, beef 
roast, lamb chops, chicken-breast, bird) digest more readily than other 
meats for perso7is of imperfect digestion. In skin inflammations, high 
blood-pressure (due to hardened arteries), rheumatism, and thyroid hy- 
persecretion meat is inadvisable. Meat as it is eaten produces heat in 
excess of its energy value. It is therefore lessened in summer diet. 

218 FOOD — WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



Rl?l 



FOOD-UTILIZATION 



FTfl 



Construction of the body (growth), its integrity (health), its re- 
generation (repair), depend upon food-utilization. If the body cannot 
use the food eaten it is not nourished. (Food-quantities, pp. 222-223.) 

Food-proteins are made up of about twenty simpler compounds (amino- 
acids). All these are not in every food-protein. The food-proteins that 
contain the compounds that body-protein is made up from are called 
" complete " proteins (milk, egg-white, meat); others, incomplete (wheat, 
corn, gelatin). " Complete " proteins maintain the body and promote 
growth. Of the incomplete, wheat-protein maintains the adult body but 
does not further growth. Corn-protein alone can do neither. Milk adds 
what it lacks. It is not nutritively significant whether protein is animal 
or vegetable, but whether it contains what is needed for body-protein. 
" A low intake of suitable protein may be infinitely more advantageous to 
nutrition than a surfeit of an ' incomplete ' protein." (Mendel.) 

Food-fats differ in body-use. Butter-fat, egg-fat, cod-liver-oil fat fur- 
ther growth. Lard, olive-oil, cottonseed-oil do not promote growth. 

Food-carbohydrates and fats are used by living body-cells in increased 
quantity when present in large amounts, hence obesity from overeating. 

Food-salts differ in foods, also in body-function. If calcium is absent 
from the blood excessive nerve-irritability results. Food-salts are im- 
peratively needed for body-structure and regulation of body-function. 
(Children need lime in food for bone-growth. The aged need food with 
little lime because it hardens arteries.) 

LlME IN FOODS (From Aran's Table) 



% 


% 




% 




% 


Cheese 1.35 


Milk .151 


Dates 


.08 


Bread 


.03 


Butter .35 


Beans .145 


Rice 


.078 


Egg-white 


.02 


Spinach .196 


Peas .12 


Cabbage 


.06 


Potatoes 


.02 


Egg-yolk .19 


Cocoa .115 


Oranges 


.06 


Meat 


.006 



Too much fat or carbohydrate in food, too much food, or too little, 
or excess of carbon dioxid causes loss from the body of such food-salts 
(alkalies). Such loss produces acid-intoxication. 

Note : Meat, egg-white, grains, bread, potatoes, lack lime. 

The operations of the body are delicate in their mechanism and the 
body most sensitive to minute quantities of many substances. (Epi- 
nephrin is present in T oooooooo P art in Dlood Dut is necessary to life.) 



FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 



219 



EGG-REFRIGERATION MODERN 

P?-eservatio?i of Eggs by Refrigeration in Sterile Air. Lescarde at 
the Third International Congress of Refrigeration described a method 
of preserving eggs by refrigeration in sterile air. The eggs are placed 
on end in horizontal fillers made of pasteboard and wood; then these 
fillers are put into tin cases which can be hermetically sealed, each case 
having a capacity of six fillers containing 160 eggs. The covers of the 
filled cases are then soldered, and the cases are deposited in an autoclave 
(digester) which contains twelve cases of 960 eggs each. A vacuum is 
then made in the autoclave, and a duly proportioned mixture of two 
gases, carbon dioxid and nitrogen, is injected. This process is very 
simple, because carbon dioxid and nitrogen, in the form of compressed 
or liquefied gases, are on the market now, so that the manipulation of 
a few cocks and the reading of a gauge suffice to produce the proper 
mixture. The process in the autoclave having been completed, the cases 
are taken out, hermetically sealed, and stored in cold-storage rooms, at 
a temperature varying from 1 to 2 C. The chief advantages accru- 
ing from the preservation of eggs in sterile air are the following : 
(1) Waste, of such importance in ordinary cold storage, is completely 
eliminated. (2) The eggs retain a perfectly " fresh " flavor, and conse- 
quently they remain excellent for table use even after ten months' storage ; 
they also retain their full weight, because no evaporation is possible in 
the tin cases. (3) After their removal from the cold-storage rooms the 
eggs remain in perfect condition for a long time and can be shipped 
long distances without deterioration ; this constitutes a signal superiority 
over the ordinary cold-storage eggs, which deteriorate rapidly after hav- 
ing been taken out of cold storage. The reason for this is simple : the 
antiseptic air which surrounds them for several months, together with 
the cold, absolutely destroy all bacteria which may be on the shell of 
the egg or in its substance. Deterioration cannot set in except by re- 
infection, which is produced only by exposure to the air for several 
weeks. By reason of the above-mentioned advantages, eggs preserved 
in sterile air find a ready market and command much higher prices 
in winter than ordinary cold-storage eggs, or even the so-called "fresh" 
imported eggs. The cost of treatment and preservation amount to 
15 francs per thousand. 

(Quoted from The Journal of the America?i Medical A ssociatioti) 

220 FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



METHODS 



FISH-SHIPPING 



Shipping Live Fish in the Frozen State. In the markets of Irkutsk, 
Siberia, fish are displayed for sale in the frozen state piled up like cord- 
wood. Fish in cold storage are preserved frozen in slabs of ice. The 
latter method is now applied in the shipment of live fish. The method 
of shipping live fish in water is not feasible on account of the expense. 
Pictet discovered that fish may be frozen in blocks of ice without being 
killed, and that they will become as lively as ever after they are thawed 
out. The fish in a large amount of water are placed in a closed tank, 
and oxygen under pressure is supplied. The greater portion of the 
water is then drawn off. The fish remain in good condition on account 
of the abundant supply of oxygen. The vessel containing the fish is 
then placed in a freezing tank and the fish are frozen into the ice 
formed. The blocks of ice containing the fish can then be piled up in 
the ordinary refrigerator car. On arrival at their destination the fish are 
put through a slow thawing process lasting ten hours, when they return 
to their normal state of active animation. 

(Quoted from The Journal of the American Medical Association, December 27, 1913) 




Perch — Skeleton and Circulation 
LIVING — INDUSTRY— COMMERCE — SCIENCE 



221 



fflfl 



CALCULATION OF DIETARIES 



R?{ 



Food-quantity was the first consideration of Diet-Science when it 
began the study of Human Nutrition. The food-amounts sanctioned 
as dietary standards have been greatly modified of late, due to more 
comprehensive experimentation and searching investigation. 

The variation in food-habits, as shown by investigation-records, and in 
nutritive possibilities, as tested by experiment, is very wide. Yet there 
are diet-limits that it is not physiologically advisable to overstep, if indeed 
safe. These are flexible, because they change with climate, occupation, 
diet-habit, size, sex, age, health. Diet-standards have value as a basis 
for selecting the dietary. For Food-Variety, see p. 224. 



DIET CHART (For man at moderate work) 
Grams 100 200 3( 

High standard 
Low " 



7T1 



Daily Food-Need 

500 600 Calories 

j yields 3000+ 
jj " 2500+ 



The lower standard is the more recent recommendation of diet-scientists. 
Dry nutrients — p 3 oz . — F z\ oz. — CH \o\ oz. (low) 

P z\ oz - — F 35 oz - — CH \a\ oz. (high) 
Food-weight of food as purchased is 3-4 lb. per capita per day. 



Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrate 



Food- Amounts according to Age, p. 182; Old- Age Requirement, p. 21 1 ; 
Food-Need of Childhood, pp. 203-205; Food-Utilization a?id Di- 
gestibility of Foods, pp. 218-219. 

Metabolism (the process of actively breaking down and building up body- 
tissue) is increased in childhood and decreased in age. The protein- 
need changes during growth and old age, but not with work. 

Occupational Energy-Requirement 



Men 


Calories per Day 


Women 


Tailor 

Bookbinder 

Shoemaker 

Metal-worker 

Painter 

Cabinet-maker 

Stone-cutter 

Wood-cutter 


2600-2800 
3000 
3100 
3400-3500 
3500-3600 
3500-3600 
4700-5200 
5500-6000 


2000 

2100-2300 

2100-2300 

2500-3200 

2900-3700 


Seamstress (hand) 
Seamstress (machine) 
Bookbinder 
Housemaid 
Washerwoman 



(From Report of Journal of the American Medical Association on Respiration Experiments 
of Physiological Institute at University of Helsingfors, in Finland. The carbon-dioxid 
output of these persons was scientifically determined during rest and during work. With 
this as a basis the energy needed to live and to work for 3 hours a day was calculated.) 



222 



FOOD— WHAT IT IS AND DOES 



M I Pi calculation of dietaries It I PI 



Selection of Dietary — Choose foods preferred by those to be fed. 
Introduce new foods periodically ; discontinue if digestion is disturbed. 

Note especially protein-foods that seem digestible. Use these. 

Combine with "incomplete" proteins some "complete," p. 219. 
Consider digestibility (p. 218) of all foods used ; also ease of digestion. 

Use together foods of rapid and slow utilization, as sugar and starch. 
Combine Building — Energy — Digestion Foods, pp. 172-174. 

Acid-excess is undesirable in the body. To prevent this, use base-pro- 
ducers (potatoes, apples, raisins, cantaloupes) with acid-producers 
(meats, cereals, prunes). 

Approximate the general menus on pp. 194-195. Use foods in season. 
Prepare food freshly. 

It is not advisable to attempt to calculate the amount of food as it is 
used daily. The sources of error are so many that the total inaccuracy 
exceeds that of a larger more general calculation, such as is suggested. 

Calculation of Dietary — To estimate food-quantity for a family : 
Record all staple foods on hand at the beginning and end of a week. 
Add to the difference the foods purchased during the week, if used. 
Subtract 10% (waste in raw material and through preparation). Divide 

remainder by number of those fed (using proportions on p. 182). 

This gives food-bulk constimed per capita per week. For succeeding week 

adjust to standard if not in accord. 

Note weights of each food used. Calculate P — F — CH in amount of 

each used. (Food-Tables, pp. 1 90-1 93.) Add these for all foods eaten. 

Compare proportions of these totals with standard. If necessary, change 

foods to secure similar relation. 
This gives staitdard diet-balance offood-constituents. 
Multiply total P + CH (in oz.) by 1 25 and F by 250. The sum of these 
is a close approximation of the calories of the food eaten. 
This may be obtained by adding calories given in Food-Tables, but to 

do so makes the calculation more cumbersome. 
This gives the Fuel Value or Heat-Eueigy of the dietary. Distribution by 
proportions (p. 182) gives calories per person. 
Estimate cost of the adjusted dietary per family per year. Compare 
with Income-Distribution, p. 183. Food-Cost, p. 156. 
This gives food-expense as econo?nic factor of income. 

FOOD-SCIENCE — HUMAN NUTRITION 223 



|l±=l±=d | FOOD AND HEALTH |U=L!=1 | 

Food-variety has long been considered a health-necessity. 
Diet can be more limited in variety if it is accurately adjusted 
to the individual food-need. Foods of different kinds are 
never fully interchangeable in the diet. As foods differ even 
in their most minute constituents, so do they in nutritive 
effect. Hence the necessity of considering the kinds of food 
and the palatability as well as the quantity. 

Science finds that peoples in extremes of climate, which re- 
strict the food-supply, live upon very limited food-combinations ; 
also that those of curtailed resources eat only a few food- 
combinations of simple foods. Some of the latter foods of for- 
eign origin have recently been introduced into American diet. 

Diet-expansion has been directly effected by these foods 
that have come with the peoples long accustomed to their use 
in other lands. The food-preparations so brought are often 
unique. They are the age-long experience resulting from the 
effort to make palatable, nutritious diet from limited food- 
resources. Such are inexpensive foods, because this has been 
the need of the workers whose resources are least and food- 
needs greatest of any social group. What experience has 
taught them can be learned from them, though their food- 
needs exceed their present diet-possibilities. 












OLD CHINESE DISHES 




INDEX 




( Word at left isjirst 
Abbreviations 
Abbreviations 

C, cupful 

C (with temperatures), centigrade 

Cal, calories 

CH, carbohydrate 

C0 2 , carbon dioxid 

F, Fat 

F (with temperatures), Fahrenheit 

gm., gram (453-54 gms. = i lb.) 

kg., kilo or kilogram (i kg. = 
iooo gms. =: 2.2 lb.) 

MM, mineral matter 

P, protein 

T, tablespoonful 

t, teaspoonful 

W, water 
Acetic acid in vinegar, 52 
Acid 

acetic, 51 

acid-intoxication, 219 

acid-producers, 223 

amino, 219 

boracic, 149 

citric, 51 

effect on digestion, 197 

fatty acids in butter, 120 

food-acids, 39, 51 

fruit-acids, 38 

lactic in meat, 87, 117 

lactic in milk, 117 

malic, 8, 51 

organic, in fruits, 39, 44 

tartaric, 51 

vinegar, 51 
Adult-diet 

food-adjustment to work, 182 

food-need (kinds, times), 181 
Adulteration 

canned goods, 138 

cheese, 115 

chemicals in, 69, 150 

chocolate, 54 

coffee, 57, 138 

cream, 115 

dangers of, 138 



on page ; at right, last) 

Animal 
Adulteration 

definition of, 138 

food, 138 

fraud in jams, jellies, 138 

meat, 149 

milk, 113 

spices, 54 

vinegar, 51 
Advance, human, 128 
Advancement of life, 127-129 
Advertisement, 139, 140 
Air 

leavening, 29 

need, 166 

purity, quality, 166 

relation to 
food-cycle, 74 
food-production, 73 
food-utilization, 66, 166, 201 

supply, 69 
Albumen, 94 

lact-albumin, 112 
Alcohol 

fermentation, 28, 51 

wood-alcohol, 150 
Allspice, 52 
Almonds, 47, 193 
Alum, residue, 33 
Anabolism, 200 
Animal 

Animal Life and Foods, 81 

age-range, 85 

availability for food, 83 

cattle on farms {map), 123 

characteristics as food, 85 

condition" for food, 87 

constituents in food, 82 

cows on farms {map), 125 

cuts, 91 

lamb, pork, veal, 82 
muscle, skeleton, 90 

diagrams and cuts, 90-93 

digestibility of, 83, 218 
order of {table), 126 

digestion time {table), 128 



225 



ANIMAL 


f jjpj BAKING-POWD] 


Animal 


Atmosphere 


domestication, 128 


purification, 68 


effects of living, 85 


wind-effects, 68 


expense, 83 




farm, 123 


Bacon, 87 


fibers {drawing), 85 


Bacteria 


flavor, 85 


activity, 70, 74, 176 


food of, 80, 83, 85 


in body-tissues, 116 


food-cycle, 74 


in butter ripening, 120 


food-production, 72, 187 


in food, 137 


foods, 122 


in food-decomposition, 149 


fowls on farms, 125 


in food-deterioration, 151 


health, 82 


in intestines, 69 


life-needs, 84 


in milk, 70 


maps, 122-125 


in refrigeration, 153 


muscles {drawing), 90 


in refuse, 137 


parts (summary), 85 


in soil, 69 


products, 128 


bread unwrapped (table), 28, 31 


value of (table), 186-187 


changes in milk, 116 


waste, 83 


conditions of growth, 1 1 


work (map), 123 


dangers, 69 


Ants, 136 


destruction in cooking, 12 


Apples 


destructive, 152 


acetic fermentation, 51 


development of, 7 1 


acids, 51 


disease from, 70, 152 


composition, 38-39, 193 


disease producing, 116 


digestibility, 44 


effect of heat on, 55 


dried, 43 


effect of sterilization, 152 


green, 14, 39, 41 


fission, 71 


jams, jelly, 43 


food of, 70, 154 


laxative food, 44 


function in 


ripeness, 14 


food-cycle, 74 


vinegar, 51 


food-production, 73 


wild, 40 


illustrations of 


Apricots, 43, 44 


lactic acid, 1 17 


Architecture, 129 


life of, 69 


Arsenic, 150 


multiplying, 70-71 


Ash, defined, 6 


multiplying in milk, 70, 117 


in fruits, 43 


nitrogen-carriers, 4 


Asparagus 


pathogenic, 153 


bleached, 150 


putrefactive, 55, 152-153 


canned, 154 


reproduction, 70-71 


characteristics, 9 


spores, 71 


composition, 9 


with yeast, 30 


cooking, 13 


Baking-Powder 


Astringent, 57 


action as leaven, 32 


Atmosphere 


alum, 33 


in food-cycle, 74 


characteristics, 22 



226 



BAKING-POWDER 




[ UTj BORACIC 


Baking-Powder 




Beef 


composition, 32 




use in diet, 94, 126 


cream of tartar, 33 




Beets 


filler, 32 




characteristics, 9 


home-made, 34 




composition, 6, 193 


method of using, y 




refuse in (table), 8 


phosphate, 33 




Benzoate of soda, 137 


residues, 33 




as preservative, 149 


starch in, 32 




Berries 


use, 34 




digestibility, 44 


Bananas 




laxative food, 45 


composition, 193 




Beverages 


digestibility, 44 




adulteration, 57 


laxative food, 45 




cocoa, 56-57 


nutrients, 38-39 




coffee, 56-57 


ripening, 155 




comparison of, 63 


Barley 




composition, 57 


acreage {map), 19 




extractives in, 55 


composition (table), 


20 


lemonade, 56 


gluten in, 22 




nutriment in, 63 


illustration of, 20 




origin of, 56 


malt, 52 




preparation, 57 


starch in, 76 




summary, 63 


water, 113, 207 




tea, 56-57 


yield (table), 19 




use in diet, 56 


Baskets, 128 




value in diet, 56 


Bass, 103 




wines, 56 


Beans 




Biscuit, 36 


characteristics, 9 




Blackberries 


composition, 6, 192 




acid in, 51 


leguminous, 4 




composition, 38 


lima, 9 




Bleaching food, 150 


plant-part, 3 




Bluefish, 102-103 


refuse in (table), 8 




Body as chemical laboratory, 216 


string, 9, 192 




Body-activity 


Beef 




food-need for, 175 


composition of, 86, 


190 


in childhood, 205 


cost of, 88 




Body-composition 


cuts 




constituents, 173 


described, 88 




waste, 217 


illustrated, 82, 88 


90-93, 99 


water, 208 


quality of, 88 




Body processes 


muscles (diagram), 


90 


delicacy of, 219 


quarters 




in childhood, 202-205 


fore, 88 




nutritive effect, 218 


hind, 80 




working, 116 


side (diagram), 91 




Bolting, 24 


skeleton (diagram), 


90 


Boracic acid, 149 



227 



BORAX I 


\iT\ CARBOHYDRATES 


Borax, 149 


Building food 


Bran, composition, 24 


meat as, 97 


protein, salts in, 24 


milk as, 1 1 1 


use, 143 


summary, 126 


Brazil nuts, 47, 193 


Butter 


Bread 


adulteration, 120 


baking, 27-28 


bacteria in making, 120 


care, 28 


bread with, 22, 27 


characteristics, 22 


butterine, 120 


childhood, 28 


characteristics, 120 


comparison with flours, 27 


composition, 114, 191 


composition of different (table), 


digestibility, 120 


27, 37 


fat in, 115 


constituents, 27 


flavor, 120 


crust, 28 


growth food, 120 


diet factor, 22 


oleomargarine, 120 


flat, illustration after 34 


renovated, 120 


flour-quality, 35 


ripening, 120 


kinds {table), 27-28, 36 


standard, 114 


leavened, 27 


substitutes, 120 


making, 28 


test, 1 19 


souring, 28 


Butterine, 120 


staple food, 25 


Buttermilk, 114 


substitutes, 37 


Butternuts, 47 


unleavened, 35 




unwrapped, 28 


Cabbage, composition, 6, 193 


use in diet, 22 


nutrients, 8 


use in France, 159 


plant-part, 3 


wrapped, 28 


refuse in (table), 8 


yeast in making, 30 


Caffeine in coffee, 55, 63 


Breakfast 


Cake, composition, 23, 192 


colonial days, 179 


use in diet, 37 


food-quantity, 181 


Calcium in food, 73, 222 


foods for, 181 


Calculation of dietaries, 223 


menus, 194 


Calories, (chart), 222 


table, illustration after 194 


defined, 188 


Brisket, composition, 88 


existence-requirement, 200 


location, 91 


in common foods (table), 190-193 


quality, 88 


in daily diet, 200, 222 


Broilers, 100 


in diet-standards, 201, 222 


Buckwheat 


Cannibalism, 127-128 


acreage (table), 19 


Capon, 100 


gluten in, 22 


Carbohydrates 


grinding (illustration), 23 


constitution, 72 


yield (table), 19 


digestibility (table), 196 


Building, origin, 128 


food-constituent, 171 


Building food, 72 


functions of, 72 


excess, 171 


kinds of, 4, 72 



228 



CARBOHYDRATES 

Carbohydrates 

milk, in, 113 

oysters, 102 
Carbon in food-cycle, 74 
Carbon dioxid in 

air, 55' 73 

baking-powder, 32 

beverages, 63 

fermentation, 28, 31 
vinegar, 51 
yeast, 28 

food elements, 72 

food of plants, 66 

respiration of plants, 55, 66 
Carrots, composition, 6, 193 

nutrients, 9 

refuse, 8 
Carving (see aits) 

chicken {diagram), 99 

fish [diagram), 99 

fowl {diagram), 99 

ham {diagram), 88 

lamb-leg {diagram), 88 

lamb-shoulder {diagram), 99 

meat {diagram), 89 

roasts {diagram), 93 
Casein, 112 
Cassia, 52 

Cattle on farms {map), 123 
Cauliflower, 3 
Cayenne, 52 
Celery, characteristics, 9 

composition, 6, 193 

dangers, 7 

plant-part, 3 

refuse, 8 

use in diet, 5 
Cells (see Diagrams) 
Cellulose, 4 

cell-structure {illustrated), 75 

cooking of, 12 

function in body, 5, 72 

function in food-cycle, 74 

in grains, 24 

in plant-structure, 75 

in vegetables, 72 

stimulation of, 5 

woody fiber, 5, 72 




a c 



CHEMICALS 



Cellulose 



young, 4, 10 
Cereals 



acreage {map), 19 

coffee, 59, 63 

composition {table), 20, 192 

cooking {table), 21 

gruels, 21, 207 

illustrations of, 20-21 

importance of, 16 

in diet, 24 

kinds, 22 

porridge, 21 

preparation of, 21, 177 

yield {table), 19 
Ceres {illustration), 77 
Charts (see Diagi-ams) 

diet, daily, 222 

foods, supplementary, 189 

heat value of foods, 188 

population-distribution, 184 
Cheese 

adulteration, 121 

bacteria in making, 121 

Cheddar, 114, 121 

composition {table), 19, 114, 121 

cottage, 121 

cream, 114 

digestibility, 121 

Edam, 121 

fat in, 119 

filled, 121 

industry, 121 

kinds, 1 14 

mold in, 121 

Neufchatel, 121 

Parmesan, 121 

protein in, 119 

Roquefort, 121 

salts, 1 19 

Stilton, 121 
Chemical changes in food-utilization, 

200, 219 
Chemicals 

adulteration, 138, 150 

bleaching food, 150 

coloring food, 1 50 

dyes in food, 150 



229 



CHEMICALS | 


[ iFj COMMERCE 


Chemicals 


Chuck 


food, 143 


location, 91 


food-elements, 73, 188 


quality, 88 


preservatives, 149, 152 


Cider, 41 


residues, 155 


Cinnamon, 52 


Chestnuts, 47 


Citron, 44 


Chicken 


Clams, 102-103 


carving (illustrated), 99 


Cleanliness, effect on 


composition, 103, 191 


food, 136, 152 


kinds, 100 


health, 132 


milk-fed, 100 


markets, 136 


parts, 100 


Clothing, 183 


quality-test, 100 


Cloves, 52 


young {illustration)^ 105 


Coal-tar products, 1 50 


Child-Diet, 202-205 


Cocoa 


age-combinations, 204 


beans (illustration), 61 


food-intoxication, 205 


beverage, 60 


groxvth-food, 203, 205, 219 


branch of tree, 61 


mineral matter in, 205, 219 


butter, 61 


quantity-standards (table), 202 


composition, 62-63 


restrictions, 205 


digestibility, 62 


significance, 204 


fat in, 61 


Child-Food 


growth of, 60 


eggs as, 109, 203-204 


hulls, 61 


food-adjustment, 168, 203-205 


nibs, 61 


impure milk, 1 16 


nutrients, 62-63 


milk, in 


plant-part, 3 


milk purity, 1 10 


varieties, 62 


Childhood 


Coconut, 47 


body-development, 202 


Cod, 101, 103, 191 


digestive limitations, 202, 205 


Coffee 


food-quantities, 202 


adulteration, 56, 59, 150 


growth in, 202, 205 


bean (illustration), 59 


growth-diet, 209 


caffeine, 55, 63 


growth-foods, 203, 219 


comparison with tea, 57 


heat-need, 203 


composition, 57, 63 


kinds of food, 203 


cultivation, 59 


nutrients needed, 203 


extractives, 55 


treatment of, 209 


flavor, 57 


Chlorophyll 


preparation as beverage, 57 


function, 66 


production, 59 


in lettuce, 8 


substitutes, 59 


in vegetable cell, 75 


tannin in, 57 


Chocolate, 61 


test, 59 


adulteration, 54 


Cold storage, 153 


composition, 62 


Commerce 


manufacture, 61 


dangers, 10, 138 


use, 62 


development, 131 



230 



COMMISSIONS f" 


Iff j COST 

lis 


Commissions, 115, 154 


Contents 


Community 


Aninial Life and Foods, 81 


interests, 134 


Food-Science — Ahitrition , r 60 


need of commissions, 154 


General, v 


Composition of 


Living — Industry — Commerce, 


animal foods {table), 1 90-1 91 


126 


apples (table), 39 


Plant Life and Foods, vii 


baking powders, 32-33 


Convalescence, 206 


beverages (table), 63 


diet in, 207 


breads (table), 37, 192 


Cooking, 13 


butter (table), 114, 191 


baked food, 13 


cake (table), 27, 192 


cereal (table), 21 


cereals (table), 20, 192 


effect, on bacteria, 137, 155 


cheese (table), 114, 191 


on composition of food, 21, 139 


cocoa (table), 63 


on digestibility of food, 133, 197 


coffee (table), 63 


on food, 8, 12-13, : ^2 


crackers (table), 37, 192 


on meat, 96-97 


cream (table), 114, 191 


on water, 8, 12 


daily diet (chart), 181, 200-201, 222 


eggs, 109 


eggs (table), 108, 191 


general changes, 13, 133 


fish (table), 101, 103, 191 


potato, 8 


flours (table), 26, 192 


salt in, 1 2 


foods, common (table), 190-193 


steam in, 13 


animal (table), 1 90-1 91 


vegetables, 12 


human (table), 20, 46 


water in, 12 


vegetable (table), 192-193 


Corn 


fruits, fresh (table), 38, 193 


acreage (map), 18 


fruits, dried (table), 43, 193 


bread, 36 


jams, jellies (table), 43 


care, 1 1 


milk (table), in, 191 


characteristics, 9 


milk products (table), 114, 191 


composition, 192 


nuts (table), 47, 193 


crops (table), 77 


population of U.S.A. (table), 185 


dangers, 208, 219 


protein foods (table), 103 


ear (illustrated), 21 


vanilla, 53 


fat in, 20-21 


vegetable (table), 192-193 


gluten in, 22 


green, 8 


growth of, 25 


legumes, 9 


protein in, 219 


starchy, 9 


refuse in (table), 8 


Concentrated foods 


starch in (table), 76 


use in body, 176 


yield in (table), 19 


Condiments, growth, 54 


Corn meal 


origin, 10 


composition of, 20, 192 


use, 52, 55 


cooking, 21 


Confections, adulteration of, 54 


use, 21 


Constituents (see Food) 


Cost of 


Constitution, delicate, 209 


foods (table), 156 


inferior, 208 


living (table), 183 



231 



COST 

Cost of living commodities {table), 

157 
Cottonseed-oil, 50 

production of [map), 49 
Cows on farms {map), 125 
Crab-apple, 43 
Crabs, 102-103 
Crackers, 23 

varieties {table), 37, 192 
Cranberries, 38 
Cream, 113, 191 
adulteration, 115 
composition {table), 114 
digestibility, 115 
fat in, 114 
separation, 114 
Cream of tartar, 33 
Crops 

production, U.S.A. {map), 17 
production {table), 158, 186-187 
value of {table), 19,78, 158, 186-187 
world yields {table), 77 
Cucumbers 

composition {table), 6, 193 
nutrients {table), 8 
refuse {table), 8 
Currants, acid in, 51 
composition {table), 43 
digestibility {table), 44 
Custom, diet, 169 

food, 168 
Cuts of Meat, illustrated (see 
Diagrams) 
beef (animal), 90, 91 
cuts, 91 
muscles, 90 
quarters, 93 
roasts, 93 
side, 91 
bones, 93 
muscles, 93 
sirloin cutting, 92 
skeleton, 90 
steaks, 92 
mutton (lamb), 82 
chops, 89 
leg, 88 
shoulder, 99 



DIAGRAMS 



Cuts of Meat 

pork (animal), 88 
ham, 88 

veal (animal), 82 
Cycle of Nature 

advancement of life, 73 

diagrams, 74 

food-cycle, 74 

living, 72 

Daily Diet 

adjustment to age, 181 
to growth, 181 

amounts, 188, 200-201, 211, 222 

composition of, 181 

comprehensively, 1S1 

distribution of food, 181 

food-amounts, 18S-189 

menus for, 194-195 
Dairy products {table), 114, 191 
Dates, 43, 193 

Death, causes of {table), 210 
Decomposition 

bacteria in, 153 

ferments in, 155 

food, 154 

freezing in, 153 

fruit, 41 

plant, 11 

refrigeration, 153 

vegetable, 13 
Development of 

body, 168, 212 

digestive agencies, 202 

food, 13 

industry, 139 
need, 182 
products, 139 
supply, 134 

human food, 162 

human life, 126-131 

organism, 71 

plant, 20 

seed, 134 

vegetable cells {illustrated), 75 

yeast plant, 30-31 
Diagrams (see Carvings Cuts, Charts, 
Drawings, Maps) 



232 



DIAGRAMS f 


ttf ) DIGESTIBILITY 


Diagrams, 


Diet, foreign 


cells 


France, 159 


bacteria 


workers, 169 


fission, 116 


formation of, 80 


multiplying in milk, 117 


fresh, 5 


fat-globules, 98 


habits, 213 


in milk, 114 


illness, 206-207 


pea-structure, 75 


laxative, 45, 174 


plant-structure, 75 


life-needs in, 178 


potato-cross-section, 75 


light, 207 


starch, 75 


liquid, 207 


protein-granules, 75 


mixed, 168-169 


starch-grain, 75 


nuts in, 46 


vegetable, 75 


obesity, 211 


yeast, magnified, 31 


old age, 211 


cell-structure, 75 


quantities, 181, 18S, 200-201 


walls, 75 


science in, 168, 170 


cellulose, 75 


seasonal, 180 


chlorophyll, 75 


sensible, 213 


crop-distribution, 78-79 


standards {table), 159, 202-205 


food-cycle, 74 


supplementary foods in {chart), 6, 


land-distribution, 78 


189, 197 


muscle-fibers, 98 


workers', 169, 201, 222, 224 


perch, circulation, 221 


youth, 212 


skeleton, 221 


Dietary 


Diet (see Daily Diet) 


calculation, 222-223 


accessories, 46 


defined, 195 


adjustments, 179 


French, 159 


adult, 213 


standards, 182, 188, 200-201, 202- 


changes in, 169, 179 


205, 211, 212, 222 


chai^t, 222 


Digestibility 


child, 204-205 


aids, 198 


combinations, 204 


animal foods, 126 


exclusions, 205 


order of, 218 


condiments in, 55 


butter, 120 


constituents, 189 


carbohydrates, 196 


convalescent, 207 


cheese, 126 


custom, 168-169 


effect of cooking, 162 


daily amounts, 181, 188, 200-201 


effect of food characteristics, 197 


defined, 163 


eggs, 109 


effect on nutrition, 171 


fat in foods, 196 


expansion, 224 


foods {table), 196 


experts, 203 


nutrients {table), 196 


flour-mixtures in, 23, 37 


milk, 112, 115 


food-combination in, 163 


predigested foods, 177 


food-constituents in, 163 


prepared foods, 177 


foreign, 214, 224 


protein, 196 


different lands, 169 


starch, 196 



233 



DIGESTION 

Digestion 

acids in, 197 

bread, 22 

childhood, 202 

dangers, 14, 216-217 

diet-factors in, 174 

effect of acids in, 197 

effect of cooking, 13 

effect of fermentation, 197 

effect of food-combination, 197 

effect of food-properties, 197 

effect of food-structure, 197 

effect of food-texture, 197 

effect of mastication, 197 

effect of palatability, 197, 218 

effect of seasoning, 198 

effect of time, 181 

effect of water, 197 

foods, 166, 171 

milk, 112 

needs in, 166 

activity, air, 166-167, 200-201 
exercise, rest, 209, 216-217 

regulation of, 217 

significance of, 217 

stimulation of, 12 
by cellulose, 176 
by laxative foods, 174 
by non-nutrients, 176 
by spices, 52 

time of (table), 217 
Digestion foods, 174 
Digestive tract, 168, 217 

activity of, 168, 217 

overburdening, 173 

overworking, 173 
Dinner 

food-quantity, 181 

foods for, 181 

menu-suggestions, 194 
Disease 

causes of, 208 

conditions in, 206 

dangers, 208, 216 

diet in, 207, 209 

exposure to, 136 

germs in (see bacteria), 69, 137 

protection, 208 



EGG 



Disease, 

resistance, 208 
vegetables, carriers of, 14 
water, carriers of, 137 
Drawings (see Diagrams) 
bacteria 

disease-producing, 116 

in milk, 117 
barley, 20 
cocoa-beans, 61 

branch, 60 
coffee-beans, 59 
corn-ear, 21 
crab, 127 
fruits, 44-45 
hop, 31 

implements, 127 
maize, 21 
millet, 127 
oats, 20 

grain, 25 
rice, 20 
rye, 20 
spirogyra, 75 
starch-grains (barley, corn, oats, 

pea, rice, wheat), 76 
tea-leaves, 58 
tubercles on legumes, 4 
wheat, 25 

grain covered, 24 

grain uncovered, 24 
yeast developing, 30 
Ducks, 100 
Ductless glands 

effect on growth, 208 
effect on nutrition, 211 
Dyes in food, 150 

Edam cheese, 129 
Eels, 102-103 
Egg 

broken eggs, 106 

characteristics, 104 

composition of, 103, 108, 191 

cooking of, 109 

digestibility of, 109 

dried, 106 

gelatin substitute for, 106 



234 



EGG r 


V 


Egg 


Farm animals {maps), 123 


growth-food, 203, 212, 219 


animals on farms {table), 186 


leaven, 34 


Fat 


nutrients, 108 


body, 3, 173 


preservation, 106, 220 


cocoa, 61 


production, 107 


constitution, 72 


quality, 107 


digestibility, 196 


refrigeration, 220 


food-constituent, 171, 175 


shell, 108 


food-cycle function, 74 


significance, 100 


functions of, 3, 72, 175 


test, 104 


globules {illustrated), 98 


use in diet, 107, 109 


in milk {illustrated), 114 


white, 104, 108 


in fish, 101, 103 


yolk, 104, 108 


in human food {table), 50 


Egg-plant, 8 


in milk, 113 


Endurance, 208 


in plant food, 26 


Energy in 


Fatigue, 216 


body-activity, 173 


Ferment 


carbohydrates, 176 


acetic acid, 51 


fat, 173 


in foods, 177 


food-energy, 201 


lactic acid, 117 


foods, 173 


natural, 142 


occupational requirement {table) 


, ptyalin, 202 


222 


refrigeration, 153 


starch, 173 


ripening fruit, 155 


sugar, 173 


unorganized, 137, 151, 153 


vegetables, 9 


Fermentation 


Environment 


acetic acid, 51 


effects of, 128 


acid, 203 


expansion of, 129 


bread-making, 28 


health-need, 135 


cocoa-manufacture, 61 


sanitary, 135 


food, 5 


Enzyme in pineapple, 197 


fruit-juice, 41 


Evolution of 


glucose, 55 


civilization, 129 


grape, 56 


food, 126-129 


intestinal, 5, 197 


Exercise, 209 


milk, 117, 119 


Existence, food-need, 200 


storage, 137 


Experience, 129 


Fiber 


Exploration, 129 


animal, 85 


Extractives in 


muscle {illustrated), 98 


beverages, 55, 57 


vegetable, 5, 12, 133, 173, 174 


meats, 94 


Figs, 43, 193 




Filberts, 47, 193 


Factory 


Filler, baking-powder, 32 


effect on food, 133 


Fire, 127 


food-dangers, 137 


Fish, canned, 102 


refuse, 136 


carving {diagrams), 99 



FISH 



235 



FISH 



Fish 

comparison {table), 103 

composition [table), 101, 191 

cooking, 101 

cost, 102-103 

digestibility, 101, 218 

food, 127 

fresh water, 101 

function in diet, 102 

nutrients in, 101 

preservation, 101 

protein, 101 

sea, 1 01 

season [table), 103 

shell, 102 

shipping, 221 

test of quality, 101 
Fission [illustrated), 71 
Flank, location, 91 

quality, 88 
Flavorings, 53 

artificial, 53 

chocolate, 53 

natural, 53 

tonka bean, 53 

use, 54 

vanilla, 53 
Flavors, effect of cooking, 12, 85, 96 

fruits, 39 
Flies, 136 
Flounder, 103 
Flour 

bread, 25-26, 35 

care, 25 

comparative [table), 26, 27, 192 

composition [table), 20 

description, 25 

entire wheat, 20, 25 

graham, 25 

macaroni, 25-26 

milling, 24 

pastry, 25-26, 35 

patent, 35 

protein in, 26 

starch in, 26 

test of, 35 

white, 25 

whole wheat, 35 



Mrj food 

Flour-mixtures 

composition of bread, cake, crack- 
ers, 37 

described, 23 

diet value, 26 

different breads, 36 

leavening, 29 

types (simpler, sweetened, en- 
riched), 37 
Flower, 3 
Food 

amounts, 159, 181-182, 188, 200, 

animal [map), 122 
bulk, 7 
buying, 146 
characteristics, 197 
charts 

food-constituents, 189 

heat value, 188 
clean, 136 
coloring, 138 

combination, effect on nutrition, 
163, 168-170, 219 

need of, 163 
composition [table), 190-193 
concentrated, 108 
consumption, 158-159 
cost 

comparative [table), 156 

relative to wage [table), 156 

worker's family [table), 156 
cycle, 74 
dangers, 7, 14, 136-137, I43-H4 

summary, 155 
deterioration, 10, 151, 154 
diet-habits, 159 

domestic products, 158 

foreign, 1 58 

French, 1 59 

importations for [table), 1 58 
dressings, 198 
elements, 73 

energy (work-need), 201, 222 
excess, 168 
flavors, 8, 198 
foreign, 10, 214-215 
freshness, 5 



236 



FOOD 

Food 

functions, 3, 180 
germ-free, 69 
habits, need of, 161 

regulated, 170 
heat (body-need), 200 
industry, 144 
in general, 66 
inspection, 142-143, 154 
knowledge, effect on 

buying, 139 

health, 139 

need of, 161 

protection, 154 

selection, 195 

significance, 141 
labels, 139 
laws, need of, 143 

purpose of, 138-139 
manufacture, 140 

artificial foods, 148 

canned, 144 

concealed, 145 

dangers, 143-144 

purpose, 145 
maturity, 14 
modification, 143 
needs in general, 164 
practices, 133 
preparation, 131, 133 
production, 132 
purity, 137, 140, 150 
quality, summary, 153 
quantity, 200, 222-223 

calculation, 223 

diet chart, 222 

energy requirement, 222 

protein-need, 211 

summary, 165, 200, 222 
Food-composition 

comprehensively, 188 
fuel value, 188 
tables, 190-193 
Food-constituents, 165, 171 
Foods 

animal, 85 
artificial, 148 
building, 3, 172 




FRUIT 



Foods 

carbohydrate, 3, 4, 175 

composition of {table), 190-193 

concentrated, 20, 176 

digestibility of, 15, 21S 

digestion, 174 

energy, 173 

fat, 175 

foreign, 16, 214-215 

fresh, 38 

growth, 202-203, 2I 9 

human, 20, 190-193 

kinds of, 1-2, 190-193 

laxative, 45, 115, 174 

predigested, 177 

protective, 175 

work, 222, 224 
Foreign-born in U.S.A. {table), 185 
Foreign diets, 169 
Foreign exchange, 214 
Foreign expansion of diet, 224 
Foreign foods, 16, 214 

of nations, 215 
Foreign meat-consumption {table), 

215 
Foreign products {table), 15S 
Foreign residents in U.S.A. {table), 

214 
Formaldehyde, 149 
Fowls, carving {diagram), 99 

on farms, 125 
Freezing 

fish, 10, 221 

food, 142 

preservation, 152 
refreezing, 152 
Fruit 

acids, 51 

canned, 42 

composition {table), 3S-39 

congealing, 44 

crops {table, map), 48-49 

cultivation, 40 

decomposition, 40 

desiccated, 42 

digestibility, 44 

drying, 41, 43 

fermented, 42 



237 



FRUIT 


nFj GROWTH 


Fruit 


Glucose 


flavor, 39 


in fruit-preserving, 44 


food, 38-39 


on rice, 137 


origin, 137 


sugar-substitute, 138 


function, 45, 180 


vinegar, 51 


green, 39, 41 


Gluten, 21 


heat-energy, 44 


bread, 27 


jams {table), 42 


characteristics, 22 


jellies (table), 43 


cooking, 22 


juices, 42, 51, 56 


examination, 22 


laxative, 45 


flour, 26 


mineral matter, 39 


wheat, 24 


nature-significance, 38 


Grain (see Cereals), 22-23 


plant-part, 3, 10 


changes in, 143 


preparations, 42-43 


charts, 78-79 


preservation, 40-42 


composition 


ripeness, 39 


compared, 13 


ripening in storage, 155 


of dried, 20 


season, 40 


constituents (illustrated), 25 


seedless, 40 


diet, 169 


stored, 42 


distribution (map), 18 


unripe, 44 


grinding, 24 


Fuel food, 188, 200 


illustrated, 23 


Fuel value of, 


growth, 17 


food, 188 


home of (map), 17 


foods (table), 190-193 


importance of, 16 


Functions of organisms, 72 


seeds, 20 


Fungus, 15 


starch, 76 


cream-production, 121 


Grapes, acid in, 51 


mother of vinegar, 51 


composition, 38 




digestibility, 44 


Geese, 100 


jams, jelly, 43 


Gelatin 


laxative food, 45 


adulterant, 115, 138 


Green vegetables 


egg-substitute, 106 


care, 1 1 


fish-substitute, 101 


function, 174 


function, 94, 175 


Growth 


meat, 94 


animal, 83-84 


Germ 


bacteria, 11, 13, 69 


changes due to, 29 


body, 129, 132, 168-169 


in oysters, 102 


child, 202 


in starchy food, 155 


civilization, 129 


growth, 13 


diet, 209 


life, 137 


food, 104, 109, 120 


Ginger, 52 


food-need in, 202-203 


Glucose 


food-production 


availability. 55, 64 


industry, science, 131, 133 


fermentation, 55 


storage, transportation, 131 



238 



GROWTH 

Growth 

gland-health in, 208 
humanity, 127 
impulse, 203, 209, 212 
knowledge, 134 
language, 129 
mold, 1 1 
organism, 71 
plant, 11, 20 

cocoa, 60 

coffee, 59 

grain, 17, 25 

vanilla, 53 

yeast, 28, 50 
science, 131, 133 
Gruel, 21 

Habits of health, 135 
Haddock, 101, 103 
Halibut, 1 01, 103 
Ham, 87 

cuts, 88 
Health 

aids to, 135 

culture, 135 

dangers, 136 

endurance, 208 

food in, 224 

food-supply, 137 

human, 135, 161 

mature, 208 
Heat 

basal production, 200 

body, 3 

need of, 200 

effect on 

beverages, 57 
flavorings, 198 
ripening fruit, 155 

energy, 200-201 

existence requirement, 200 

food-oxidation, 188 

foods, 173 

flour-mixtures, 26 
Hickory nuts, 47 
Hominy, 16, 21 
Hop {ilhistrated), 31 
Horses on farms {map), 123 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Huckleberries, 38 

jelly, 43 
Human body, 165-167 
activity, 164-167, 176 
composition, 165 
development, 202 
food-adjustment, 168 
concentration, 176 
regulation, 170 
waste, 170 
need for 

growth, living, work, 164 
heat, 200 
repair, 164 
rest, 167 
water, 167 
waste, 217 
Human food, 10, 13, 161, 163 
Human health, 135 
Human living, 131-132, 162 
Human nutrition, 161 
Humanity 
consumer, 80 
development, 1 26-131 
sustenance, 134 
worker, 73, 80 
Hydrogen, 73 

peroxid preservative, 149 
Hygiene 
food, 224 
habits, 135 
Hygeia {illustration), 224 

Ice, purity of, 153 
Ice-cream dangers, 153 
Illustrations (see Charts, Cuts, Dia- 
grams, Dratvings, Maps) 

Ceres, 77 

Chickens, 104-105 

Chinese dishes, after 224 

Colonial fireplace, before 1 

Crab, 127 

Dining-room, after 198 

Grinding buckwheat, 23 

Hygeia, 224 

Italian kitchen, after 134 

Italian well-head, after 166 

Millet, 127 



239 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Illustrations 

Norwegian flat bread-making, 
after 34 

Primitive cooking, 126 

Primitive implements, 127 

Primitive wood-carrying, 126 

Table-laying, after 194 

Tea-tray, after 206 

Trees (banana, cocoa, date, 
papaw), vi 
Immunity 

acquired, natural, 208 
Implements {illustrated) , 127 

development, 128 
Importations 

food, 1 58 

geographically, 157 

living-commodities, 157 
Income 

distribution, 183 

food-factor. 183 
Intelligence, 129 
Invasion, 12S 
Invention 

development, 129 

origin, 127-128 

Jams 

composition, 43 

in diet, 42-43 

preparation, 42 
Jellies, composition, 43 

in diet, 41-42 

preparation, 42 

Katabolism, 200 
Koumiss, 119 

Lactic acid in 

meat, 87 

milk, 117 
Lamb, composition, 86 

cuts (illustrated), 82 
Language, development, 129 
Lard 

in bread, 27 

leaf, 87 

nutrients, 87 



LIVING 



Laxative foods, 45, 115 
Lead in food, 1 50 
Leavens 

artificial, 32 

baking-powder, 32-34 
home-made, 34 

compared, 22 

rising-agents, 29 

yeast, 30-31 
Leaves, 3 

tea (illustrated), 58 
Legumes [illustrated), 4 

characteristics, 9 
Lemon, acids in, 51 

composition, 38 

digestibility of, 44 

extract, 53 

juice, 54 

lemonade, 56 
Lentils, 4 

characteristics, 9 
Lettuce, care, 1 1 

composition, 6, 193 

nutrients, 8 

refuse, 8 

use, 5 
Life, expectation, 210 

food, 200 

food adjusted to, 178 

foods, 178, 190-193 

needs, 66 

pastoral, 128 

primitive, 128, 132 

sustenance, 200 
Life-expectancy (table), 21c 
Light diet, 207 
Lime, elimination, 219 

foods, 219 

salts in milk, 113 

water, 113 
Liquid diet, 207 
Living 

change in needs, 179 

commodities (table), 157 

cost-increase, 157 

development of, 132 

effects of peaceable, 132 

food-adjustment to, 179 



240 



LIVING 


\K) 


Living 


Maps 


food-quality, 44 


crops, production, 17 


functions in life, 72 


value of, 78 


human, 128, 164 


fruit, value of, 49 


income (table), 183 


home of grains, 17 


movement in, 128 


nuts, value of, 49 


organisms, 66, 71 


Markets, care, 11 


plant, 11, 68 


food, 1, 13 


products of, 72 


live stock, 82 


subjects in school, 134 


Mastication 


variety of needs, 179 


bread, 22 


Lobster, 102-103 


cereals, 21 


Loin, location, 91 


childhood, 205 


quality, 85 


effect on digestion, 197 


Luncheon 


effect on teeth, 205 


food-quantity, 181 


egg, 109 


kinds, 181 


meat, 89 


menus, 194 


need of, 168 




time for, 201 


Macaroni, 16 


Mats, 128 


flour, 25 


Maturity, 213 


Mace, 52 


Meat 


Mackerel, 101, 103 


animals, 83-85, 88 


Maintenance of house, 183 


cuts, 90-91 


Maize (illustrated), 21 


bones, 89, 95 


Malnutrition 


characteristics, 83-85 


general cause, 202, 20S-209 


color, 95 


vegetable-condition, 14, 151 


composition, 20, 95 


Manufacture 


compared, 95 


effect on food, 145 


consumption, 215 


mechanical arts 


cooking, 85, 97 


development, 130-131 


cost, 95 


origin, 129 


cutting, 88 


Maps (see Diagrams) 


diagrams, 90-93 


acreage 


diet, 169 


cereal, 19 


effects of storage, 100 


corn, 18 


excess, 171 


cotton, 49 


extractives, 94 


hay, 122 


extracts, 94, 97 


oats, 122 


fat in, 50 


wheat, iS 


fibers (illustrated), 98 


animals on farms 


function in diet, 97 


all cattle, 123 


juices, 97 


cows, 125 


kinds, 86-S7 


fowls, 125 


nutrients, 94, 96-97 


horses, 123 


powder, 97 


sheep, 124 


prepared, 87 


swine, 124 


preserved, 87, 144 



MEAT 



241 



MEAT (' 


TpJ NITROGEN 


Meat 


Milk 


protein, 94 


origin as food, 128 


refuse, 86, 95 


pasteurized, 118 


test of, 95 


powder, 1 19 


texture, 85 


preservation, 11 8-1 19 


trimmings, 95 


protein in, 113 


use in diet, 94 


pure, 1 1 5-1 1 7 


Medicine, preventive, 208 


souring, 1 17 


Melons, composition, 8 


supply, 1 10 


digestibility, 44 


lest, 115 


Menus, daily, types, suggestions, 


use, in, 1 19, 204, 208 


194-195 


whole, 114 


Metabolism, 200 


Millet (illustrated), 127 


Metals, 128 


Milling, 24 


Mice, 136 


Mineral matter (see Ash, Salts) 


Middlings, 24 


bone-formation, 172 


patent flours, 35 


bran, 24 


Milk (see Bttttei; Cheese, Cream) 


child-diet, 205 


acidity, 117 


flour, 24 


adulteration, 119 


food-constituent, 171 


bacteria in {illustrated), 116-117 


food-cycle, 74 


bottled, 116 


food-digestion, 174, 208 


bread, 22 


fruits, 39 


buttermilk, 114 


function, 72, 208 


carbohydrate, 113 


milk, 113, 219 


care of, 117 


old-age diet, 211 


certified, 118 


vegetables, 5, 6, 9, 192-193 


characteristics, 113 


youth-diet, 212 


cheese, 114 


Mold, care of bread, 28 


commission, 113, 115, 119 


care of food, 155 


composition of, 103, 111-113 


cheese-making, 121 


compared, 114 


refuse, 137 


compared with oysters, 102 


yeast, 30 


condensed, 114, 119 


Muffins, 36 


cream, 114 


Muscle 


curd, 114 


animal (illustrated), 90 


diet, in, 119 


fibers (illustrated), 97 


digestibility, 115 


structure (illustrated), 98 


fat, 113 


Mushrooms, 193 


fat globules {illustrated), 114 


Mustard, 52 


forms, 114 


Mutton, composition, 86 


impure, 116 


leg (carving), 88 


infancy-need, 114 


shoulder (catving), 99 


koumiss, 1 19 




lactic acid, 1 17 


Neck, 88 


lactic bacteria (illustrated), 117 


Nitrogen, 4, 72 


loose, 116 


food-cycle, 74 


nutrients, in, 114, 119 


food-element, 73 



242 



NUTMEG 


( t*f J PALATABILITY 


Nutmeg, 52 


Oils 


Nutrients 


construction, 72 


child-diet, 203 


food, 50 


digestibility, 196, 218 


function, 72 


eggs, 108 


vegetable, 50, 65 


fish, 101 


volatile in 


meats, 3, 83, 86-87, 94~97 


beverages, 57 


small animals, 100 


spices, 52 


vegetables, 3, 8, 9, 192-193 


Old age 


Nutrition 


condition in, 211 


aids, 166 


diet-standard, 211 


body as laboratory, 216 


diseases of, 211 


diet in, 222-223 


metabolism, 22, 211 


disturbed, 208 


Oleomargarine, 120 


effect of 


as butter substitute, 138 


food-combination, 189 


Olive, care, 54 


gland-health, 208 


crops in U.S., 48 


mineral matter, 208 


fat in, 50 


protein, 222 


oil, 50 


smell and taste, 219 


Onions, composition, 6, 192 


food-quantity, 222 


nutrients, 8 


human, 2 


refuse, 8 


milk, 112 


Oranges, acid in, 51 


Nuts 


composition {table), 38 


composition {table), 47 


digestibility, 44 


crops {table, map), 48-49 


extract, 53 


cultivation, 47 


jelly, 43 


distribution, 49 


laxative foods, 45 


food, 46 


Organism, 166 


production, 48 


Origins in human development, 126- 


use in diet, 46, 50 


129 




Oxygen in 


Oatmeal, 21 


food-cycle, 74 


composition, raw, 21 


food-preservation, 149 


cooked, 21 


food-production, 73 


cooking, 21 


food-utilization, 66 


use, 21 


. Oysters, composition, 103, 191 


water, 63 


cooking, 102 


Oats, acreage {map), 122 


floating, 102 


grain {illustrated), 25 


nutrients, 102 


plant {illustrated), 20 


protein, 102-103 


starch {illustrated), 76 




starch in {table), 76 


Palatability, bread, 22 


yield {table), 19, 77 


condiments, 54 


Obesity, diet, 211 


diet, 199 


Occupation 


effect on digestion, 197, 199 


food-requirement, 182, 222 


egg, 106-107 


health effect, 135 


flavor, 12 



243 



PALATABILITY 

Palatability 

foods, 199 

menu, 194 

milk, in 

vegetable, 8-9 

vinegar, 52 
Paprika, 52 
Parmesan cheese, 121 
Parsnips 

characteristics, 9 

composition, 6, 192 

refuse, 8 
Partridge, 100 
Pasteurized milk, 118 

infant health, 116 
Peaches 

composition, 38 

digestibility, 44 

jam, jelly, 43 

laxative foods, 45 
Peanut, butter, 47, 50 

characteristics, 9 

composition, 47, 193 

nutrients, 193 
Pear, digestibility, 44 

jam, jelly, 43 
Peas, care, 1 1 

cells {illustrated), 75 

characteristics, 9 

composition, 6, 192 

legumes, 4 

refuse {table), 8 

starch {illustrated), 76 

starch in {table), 76 
Pecans, 47, 193 
Pectin in 

carrots, 9 

unripe fruit, 39, 44 
Pectose in 

fruits, 44 

vegetables, 9 
Pepper, 52 
Peristalsis, 5, 7, 9 
Phosphates, 33 
Physiological effect of 

beverages, 63 

coffee, 55-56 

extractives, 94 



POTASSIUM 



Pigeon, 100 
Pineapple, 38 

effect on digestion, 197 

enzyme in, 197 

jam, jelly, 43 
Pistachio, 47 
Plant 

Plant Life and Foods, 1-80 
Contents, vii 

activity, 68 

cells {illustrated), 75 

cultivation, 128 

food-cycle, 74 

food-production, 2, 15, 73 

foods, 16 

green, 66 

illustrations, vi, 4, 17-19, 20-21, 
24-25* 3°-3 : ' 44-45' 58- 61 ' 7°- 
7i» 75-79 

maturity, 10 

part, 3, 52 

reproduction, 10, 20 

respiration, 55 

structure {illustrated), 75 

tropical, 52 

use, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 66-68, 72, 74 
Plate (meat cut), 88 
Plow, 128- 
Plums, 38 

jam, jelly {table), 43 
Population, U.S.A. 

age-distribution {table), 1S4 

chaj-t, 181 

composition {table), 1S5 

descent, 185 
Pork, animal, 88 

bacon, 87 

cuts, 88 

ham {illustrated), 88 

lard, 87 

nutrients, 87 
Porridge, 21 
Porterhouse 

roast {illustrated), 93 

steak {illustrated), 92 
Potassium in 

food, 73 

fruits, 39 



244 



Potatoes 


V 8 b J 

Protein 


characteristics, 9 


constituent in, 171 


composition, 6, 192 


butter, 114 


cooking, 8 


cheese, 114 


cross-section (illustrated), 75 


eggs, 104 


nutrients, 8 


fish, 101, 103 


protein, 8 


flour, 24 


refuse, 8 


grains, 22 


seed, 10 


milk, 113 


starch {illustrated) , 75 


potatoes, 8 


starch in (table), 76 


vegetables, 8, 9, 72 


sweet, 192 


wheat, 24 


white, 8, 192 


daily need, 201 


Pottery, 128 


diet-factor in 


Predigested food 


adult-diet, 213 


fermented, 177 


child-diet, 203 


peptonized, 177 


old-age diet, 211 


Preface, iii-iv 


work-diet, 201 


Prepared foods, 64, 177 


youth-diet, 212 


Preservation 


digestibility, 196, 218 


egg, 106, 220 


effect on digestion, 222 


fish, 221 


function, 3, 201, 219 


food, 137, 152-155 


granules (illustrated), 75 


fruit, 44 


Prunes, acid-producers, 223 


meat, 87, 144 


composition, 43, 193 


milk, 118-119 


digestibility, 44 


vegetables, 11 


laxative effect, 45 


Preservatives 


Ptomaines, 152 


effect on bacteria, 154 


effect of, 154 


in food, 149 


fish, 1 01 


Producers needed, 133 


hotel fare, 154 


Production 


Ptyalin, 202 


all foods in 1909 (table), 187 


Pumpkins, 6, 9 


animal foods (table), 186 


Purification of atmosphere, 6S 


animals on farms (map), 1S6 


Putrefaction, 153 


artificial, 131 




cereals (map, table), 18-19 


Quail, 100 


food, 127, 130-131 




foods (table), 186 


Rabbits, 100 


fruits (table), 186 


Radishes, 5, 7 


value, 187 


Raisins 


vegetables, 186 


base-producers, 223 


Protective foods 


composition, 43, 193 


body-fat, 175 


Raspberries, 38 


diet-factors, 175 


digestibility, 44 


gelatin, 175 


Rats, 136 


Protein 


Receptacles, cleanliness of, 136 


animal, 94 


vinegar, 51 



245 



Refrigeration, 155 


1 if. 1 uiinuvimi; x^x^j. 
V B O J 

Round (meat cut) 


fish, 221 


location {diagram), 91 


Refuse, 7 


quality, 88 


bacteria in, 137 


steak, 92 


factory, 136 


Rump, 88 


in fruit, 38, 43 


location {diagram), 91 


in meat, 95 


Rye 


in vegetables, 8 


acreage {map), 19 


mold in, 137 


composition (table), 20 


Rennet, 1 12 


cooking, 21 


Rennin, 115 


flakes, 21 


Rent, 183 


gluten in, 2 


Repair of body, 164 


use, 21 


effect on health, 216 


yield {map), 19 


effect on life, 167 




Reproduction 


Salad, dressings, 51 


fission {illustrated), 31 


oil, 50 


vegetation, 10 


Salmon, 101, 103 


Resistance 


Salt, common, 10 


disease, 208-209 


in cooking, 12-13 


need for, 209 


in food, 198 


Respiration, 66 


Salts, food, 5 


plant, 66 


in cooking, 13 


Rest 


in vegetables, 8-9 


effect of, 216 


Sardines, 103 


need of, 167 


Scalpings, 24 


Ribs, quality, 88 


School subjects for expansion of 


location {illustrated), 91 


knowledge, 134 


roast {carving), 93 


Science 


Rice 


Food-Science — Nutrition, 


acreage {map), 19 


160-224 


characteristics, 139 


Contents, 160 


coating of, 16, 151 


applied to production, 139 


composition, 20 


factory, food, 139 


condition, 137 


artificial foods, 148 


loss of salts, 143 


development, 131 


polishing, effect of, 143 


diet, 168, 222-223 


starch {illustrated), 76 


examination of food, 143 


starch in {table), 76 


experiment with food and nutri- 


yield {map), 19, 77 


tion, 133 


Rising agents, 22 


food-modification. 161 


discovery, use, 29 


food-need, 132, 168, 1S1, 200-201 


Root 


food-supply, 143 


beets, 3 


growth-food, 203 


clover {illustrated), 4 


growth-impulse, 203 


food, 127 


origin of, 128 


leguminous, 4 


physical development, 168 


Roquefort, 121 


Seasonal diet, 180 



246 



SEASONING 

Seasoning 


( \JTj SUGAR 

Spirogyra {illustrated), 75 


effect on digestion, 198 


Spores, 71 


effect on foods, 198 


Squab, 100 


excess, 198 


Squash, 9 


methods, 198 


Stalk, 3 


Seasons, foods for, 180 


Starch (see Carbohydrates, Grains), 4 


menus for, 194-195 


baking-powder, 32 


Seed, development of, 134 


body-fat from, 173 


Seeds, 10 


effect of cooking, 13 


cocoa {illustrated), 58 


endurance food, 181 


coffee {illustrated), 59 


energy food, 173 


condiments, 52 


flour, 35 


food, 127 


food-cycle function, 74 


fruit-cultivation, 40 


foods, 3-4, 6, 9, 11-13, 20-27, 73, 


grain, 20 


201, 219 


plant, 10 


fruits, green, 41 


starch in {illustrated), 76 


grains {table), 75 


Shad, 103, 191 


grains {illustrated), 76 


roe, 103 


pea {illustrated), 75 


Shank, 88 


potato {illustrated), 75 


location {diagram), 91 


raw, 3 


Sheep {map), 124 


use, 3, 9, 201 


(see Lamb, Mutton) 


vegetables, 9, n, 44 


Shops, care of food, 11 


wheat, 25 


Sirloin 


Stem, 3 


cutting steaks {illustrated), 92 


Sterile food, 152 


roasts {carving), 93 


Sterilization 


Skeleton, 3 


food-preservation, 149 


beef {diagram), 90 


food-purifying, 152 


Skim-milk, digestibility, 115 


milk-bottle, 118 


use, 114 


Stilton cheese, 1-2 1 


Sleep, activity during, 164 


Storage, cold, 153 


effect on nutrition, 211 


effects on meat, 100 


effect on repair, 167 


egg- refrigeration, 200 


Soda 


fish-shipping, 221 


baking-powder, 32 


food, 137 


benzoate of, 137 


fruit, 155 


Soil, cultivation, 128 


starch vegetables, 11 


dangers, 7 


Strawberries, 38 


food-cycle function, 74 


acid in, 51 


Spices, source, 52 


digestibility, 44 


production, 54 


Study of food, 131 


use, 52 


Sugar, 4 


Spinach, characteristics, 9 


beet, 64 


composition, 6, 193 


cane, 55 


diarrhea diet, 207 


crop {map), 77 


lime in, 219 


fruit, 39, 41 


refuse, 8 


glucose, 55 



247 



SUGAR 



Sugar 

kinds, 64 

manufacture, 64, 145 

milk, 113, 115 

plant, 10 

source, 64 

use in diet, 3, 64 

vegetable, 8-9 
Sulphites, 149-150 
Summaries (see Contents, Tables) 

adult-diet, 200, 213 

animal food, 126 

beverages, 63 

building food, 172 

butter, 120 

calculation of dietary, 223 

condiments, 54-55 

diet-quantities, 159, 181-182, 188, 
200-201, 211, 222-223 

digestion, 217 
aids, 197 
digestibility, 218 
foods, 174 

disease-resistance, 209, 210 

egg-characteristics, 104 

energy food, 173 

existence-diet, 200-201 

fish, 103 

food-constituents, 165, 219 
supply and diet, 80 
utilization, 218-219 

fruits, 45 

meat, 94 

meat cuts, 88, 95 

metabolism, 216 

palatability, 218 

sensible diet, 213 

vegetable, 3, 8-9, 65 

work-food, 201, 222, 224 
Summer diet, 180 
Sunlight in food-production, 73 
Swine on farms {map), 124 
Swordfish, 103 
Symbols 



Symbols 



filrH 



TABLES 



Food-Science — Nu- 
trition, 158-224 



\$ ) Index, 225-251 




Animal Life and Foods, 
81-126 



Living, Commerce, Sci- 
ence, 127-158 



Plant Life and Foods, 1-79 
El Preface, iii-iv 



Tables (see Contents, Summaries) 
acid in fruit, 51 
age-distribution, 1S4 
causes of death, 210 
cereal acreage, 19 
child-diet 

food-constituents, 203 
food-exclusions, 205 
food-inclusions, 204 
food-quantities, 202 
composition of 
all foods, 190-193 
apples developing, 39 
beverages as used, 63 
breads, 27, 192 

breads, cake, crackers, 37, 192 
cereals, 20, 192 
chocolate, 62-63 
cocoas, 62-63 
coffee, 63 
fish, 103, 191 
flours, 26, 192 
foods 

animal, 103, 190-191 
common, 46, 190-193 
dairy products, 114, 191 
egg, 108, 191 
fruits, 43, 193 
jams, jellies, 43 



248 



TABLES ( Ak 

Tables 
foods 

laxative, 45, 174 
milk products, 114, 191 
nuts, 47, 193 
tea, 57, 63 

vegetables, 6, 8-9, 192-193 
diet-amounts 
calculation, 223 
daily, 188 
old age, 211 
work, 222 
digestibility, 196, 218 
animal foods, 218 
order of, 126, 218 
time of, 196 
fruits, 44 
nutrients, 196 
vegetables, 196 
effect of milk-purity, 116 
fat in foods, 50 
food-consumption, 158 
cost for workers, 156 
exchange, 158 
importation, 158 
prices, 156 
production 

animal foods, 186 
vegetable, 187 
proportions, 182 
foreign residents, 214 
French dietary, 159 
fuel value of foods, 188 
income-distribution, 183 
laxative foods, 45, 174 
life-expectancy, 210 
live stock, 82 
living-commodities 
importations, 1 57 
prices, 1 57 
meat-consumption, 215 
menus, 194 
nut-production, 48 
occupational energy-requirement, 

222 
population-distribution, 185 
refuse in vegetables, 8 
spices in diet, 52 



TOMATOES 



Tables 

starch in foods, 76 

vegetables, distinguished, 8-9 

world-crops, 77 

wrapped bread, 28 
Table-laying {illustrated), after 194 
Tannin in 

cocoa, 62 

coffee, 57 

spices, 52 

tea, 57, 63 
Tea (see Beverages) 

adulteration, 57 

composition {table), 57, 63 

culture, 58 

leaves {illustrated), 58 

preparation, 57 

varieties, 58 
Teeth, diet care, 205 

growth of, 202 
Temperature, cooking, 97 

effect on bacteria, 1 53 

refrigeration, 155 

sterilization, 152 

storage, 137 
food, 152 
fruit, 41 
vegetable, 41 
Theine, 55 
Theobromine in 

cocoa, 62 

coffee, 55, 63 
Thyroid functioning, effect on nutri- 
tion, 212 
Tissue, building, 26 

connective, 97 

effects of preservatives on, 149 

formation, 2, 9 

functioning, 200 

repairing, 164, 209 

sparing, 175 
Tomatoes 

benzoate of soda in, 137 

canned, 137 

nutrients, 8 

plant-part, 3 

refuse in {table), 8 

use in diet, 8 



249 



TONKA BEAN 

Tonka bean, 53 
Tools, building, 129 
Toxic substances 

fish, 101 

tyrotoxicon, 116 
Transportation 

cocoa, 60 

egg, 220 
- fish, 221 

food, 5 

fruits, 41, 155 

milk, no 
Trout, 103 

Tubercles {illustrated), 4 
Turkey, 100 
Turnips 

characteristics, 9 

refuse, 8 



Vanilla, 53 
Vanillin, 53 
Veal 

compared with fish, 103 
composition, 86 
cuts {diagram), 82 
Vegetable (see Plant, Carbohydrate) 
care, n, 13, 15 
cells {illustrated), 75 

starch in {illustrated), 76 
cellulose, 72 
characteristics, 10 
composition, 3 

general, 20 

tables, 6, 192-193 
constituents, 9 
cooking, 12 
dangers, 14-15 
differences, 7 
distinctions, 8-9 
food, 2-64, 192-193 
kinds, 3-5 

green, 5, 1 1 

legumes, 4 

starchy, 3, n 
preservation, n 
protein, 72 
refuse {table), 8 
selection, 14 




W. 



WATER 



Vegetable 

starch {table), 44 

structure {illustrated), 13 

summary, 65 

supplies, 65 

use, 9 
Vegetation (see Cycle of naltire, 
Plant-activity) 

food-production, 187 

moisture, 68 

summaiy, 65 

tropical, 65 

value of, 66-67 
Vinegar 

adulteration, 51 

care, 51 

composition, 51 

effect on meat, 87 

preservative, 54 

use, 54 
Volatile oils in 

beverages, 57 

flavorings, 53 

spices, 52 



Walnuts, 47 

Waste products, 5, 205, 211, 216- 

bacteria in, 174 

food-cycle function, 74 

hindrance of, 174 

living, 72 
Water 

beverages, 63 

body-need, 56, 172 

body-use, 167 

bread, 22, 27 

contaminated, 137, 151 

cooking, 8, 12 

diet effect, 3, 197, 211 

digestion effect, 167, 174 

disease, 206, 208 

drinking, 167 

in fish, 101, 103 

in food, 171, 190-193 

in food-cycle, 74 

in food-production, 173 

in food-utilization, 176 

in fruits, 39 



217 



250 



WATER 


( * \ YOUTH-DIET 


Water 


Work-diets 


in milk, 1 1 1 


food-constituents in, 201 


need of life, 66 


foods of, 201 


preservative, n 


fruits in, 201, 213 


pure, 167 


green foods, 201, 213 


sewage, 15 


meat in, 201, 215, 218 


supply, 69 


potatoes, 201 


Weapons, 128 


protein, 201 


Wheat 


rice, 201 


acreage {map), 18 


starch, 201 


bread, 27-28, 36-37 


sugar, 201 


constituents, 25 


vegetables, 201 


flour, 25-26, 35 


Workers 


(table), 26 


diet-needs, 224 


gluten, 22 


diets for, 169, 201, 222 


grains (illustrated), 24 


food and wage, 156 


growth, 25 


food-cost, 156 


hulls, 24 


food-workers, 131 


illustrated, 22, 24-25 


occupational energy-requirement, 


kinds, 24 


222 


milling, 24 


Writing, 128 


starch (table), 76 




(illustrated), 76 


Yeast, 30-31 


value of crop (table), 187 


bread, 27, 36 


yield in 1909, 19, 77 


bread-making, 30 


Whitefish, 101, 103 


care of, 31 


Winter, need in 


cells (illustrated), 31, 75, 98 


cereals, 21 


developing {illustrated), 30, 75 


diet-adjustment, 180 


characteristics, 22, 31 


menus, 194 


conditions for, 30 


Wood-alcohol, 150 


food of, 30 


Work 


growth, 28 


food for, 181 


home-made, 31 


food-needs in, 201 


plants, 29 


in provision of food, 130 


prepared, 31 


Work-diets 


wild, 31 


fat in, 201 


Youth-diet, 212 




251 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




012 821 550 5 



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